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Watch Tower Capitalization

Weights and Measures

Area and Volume

Change in Physical State

Capitalization

Dictionary Capitalization

Ancient Manuscripts

Archaeological Objects

Astronomical Terms

Heavenly Bodies

Bible Terms

Bible Terms Associated With the Word “Day”

When “Day” Follows the Term

When “Day” Precedes the Term

Bible Terms Used as Common Nouns

Common Noun Form as an Adjective

Bible Terms Used as Proper Nouns

Proper Noun Form as an Adjective

Book Parts

Buildings and Organizations

Common Noun Elements

Plurals of Names

Names of Congregation Meetings

Family Titles Used as Names

Correspondence

Games

Geographic Terms

Coast

Common Noun Elements in Place Names

Compass Points

Geographic Divisions

Regions and Localities

“River,” “Mountain,” and Similar Terms

Involving Foreign Words

Representing the Whole Geographic Name

State

Governmental and Legal Terms

Governmental Bodies

Judicial Bodies

A Specific Court

“Court” as a Part of a Full Name

“Court” as a Substitute for a Full Name

Not a Specific Court

Laws

Legislative Bodies and Legislative Action

Holidays and Special Periods

Hyphenated Compounds

In Text

In Titles and Headings

Jehovah

Adjectives Ending in “ly” and ’’fill”

Substitute Terms With “Christ”

Adjectives Ending in “ly” and “fill”

British Commonwealth Text

“Cardinal” in Roman Catholic Usage

Generic Use

Personal Name Attached

Titles as Synonyms in Direct Address

Photo Credits

Poetry

Quotes From the Bible

Quotes Not From the Bible

Seasons and Weather

Signs

Special Watch Tower Capitalization

Terms in Watch Tower Publications

Titles, Headlines, and Subheads

Articles, Conjunctions, and Prepositions

Compound Prepositions

Capitalization and Artistic Layout

First and Last Word

Following a Dash

Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs

Second Element of Hyphenated Words

Words of Four or More Letters

Trademarks

Common Noun Identified by a Trademark

Following an Exclamation Point or a Question Mark

The Words “Yes” and “No”

Commas

Purpose of the Comma

Adverbial Clauses

Introduced by “Because” or “Since”

Introduced by “So That”

Introduced by “Unless” and “Except”

Nonrestrictive Adverbial Clause

Preventing Misreading of First Clause

Restrictive Adverbial Clause

Internal Adverbial Clause

Preceding the Main Clause

Applying to Two Independent Clauses

Introduced by “As,” “Since,” or “While”

To Ensure Correct Reading

Adverbial Phrases

Alternative “Or,” Appositional “Or”

Alternative “Or”

Appositional “Or”

Antithetical Elements

With “Not... But”

Appositives Distinguished From Series Items

Nonrestrictive Appositives

Restrictive Appositives

Compound Predicates

Compound Sentences

Omission of a Common Verb

Separating Coordinate Clauses

Introduced by “For”

Introduced by “So,” “Then,” or “Yet”

Joined by “But”

No coordinating Conjunction Used

Short, Closely Connected Coordinate Clauses

Verbs in the Imperative Mood

Conjunctions

Consecutive Proper Nouns

Direct Address

Ellipsis Points

Em Dash in Place of a Comma

Abrupt Break or Afterthought

Elements Having Internal Commas

Emphasis

Emphasizing Single Words

Emphatic Second Independent Clauses

Repetition and Restatement

Interpolations

Transitional Words Versus Adverbs

Independent Comments

Introductory “So”

Introductory “Thus”

Transitional Expressions

Multiple Adjectives Preceding a Noun

Adjective and Noun Forming a Unit

Adjective Modifying a Word in a Series

Independent Adjectives

Numbers

Day, Month, and Year Given

Only Month and Year Given

Only name of Day Given With Year

Dimensions, Weights, and Measures

Figures of Four Digits or More

Unrelated Figures

When Commas Are Not Used in Figures

“O,” “Oh”

Parenthetical Expressions

Elements Common to More than One Phrase

Absolute Phrase

Correlative Phrase

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers

Nonrestrictive

Restrictive

“Such As” and “Such ... as”

Nonessential Element Following a Conjunction

Construction Normally Avoided

Series Elements Having Closing Punctuation

“That,” “Which”

“Of Which” and Similar Forms Using “Which”

“That” With Introductory Clause

“Too”

Wrong Use of Commas

After Last Item of a Series

Around Restrictive Words Within a Sentence

Before an Indirect Quotation

Before Restrictive Element at End of Sentence

Before Second Element of a Correlative Conjunction

Between Bible Book Name and Chapter in Text

Between Independent Clauses

Not Joined by a Conjunction

In Place of a Conjunction

Separation of Verb and Object

Hyphens

Purpose of the Hyphen

Compound Adjectives

Adjective Plus a Noun With “d” or “ed” added

Adjective Component Ending in “d”

Adjective Plus Noun

Non Preceding the Word Modified

Adverb Plus Adjective or Participle

To Prevent Misreading

When the “ly” Modifier Can Be Misread

When the Adverb Can Be Misread

When “More” Forms a Compound of Comparative Degree

Compound Modifier That Is Quoted

Compounds Denoting Color

Combining Two Colors or a Color and a Noun

One Component Ending in “ish”

Noun or Adjective Plus Participle

Components Employed With Different Meaning

Verb Plus Preposition or Adverb

Used as an Adjective

When the Compound Adjective Is a Proper Noun

Used as a Noun

Used as a Verb

Form Dependent on Meaning

Compound Expressions Ordinarily Written as Two Words

Compound Nouns Ordinarily Written as a Solid Word

Compound Nouns Written as Two Words

Compounds That May Change Form

Compounds That May Require a Change in Form

In Apposition to a Norm

Use of “Full” and the Suffix “fill”

When a Suffix Is Added

Number Compounds

Cardinal Numbers

With an Adjective or Participle

With a Noun

With “odd”

“Of a” or “of an” Between a Fraction and a Noun

As Modifiers of Nouns

As Nouns

Ordinal Numbers

Phrases Used as Adjectives

Prefixes

As Found in Webster’s

Deviations for Easier Reading

When the Second Component Is Capped

Words Usually Hyphenated

Words Usually Treated as Solid

According to Webster’s

Suffix That Creates Three Successive “l’s”

With the Suffix “fold”

With Figures

With Spelled-Out Numbers

Suspended Compounds

Adjectives With One Component in Common

Expressions to Be Avoided

Two Nouns of Equal Value

Italics

Italics in Other Bible Translations

Compound of Foreign Word With English

Foreign Words

Exception to Webster’s

Short Quotation in a Foreign Language

Words Not Listed in Main Section of Webster’s

Letters or Numbers

In Algebraic Equations

In Parentheses and After Verse Numbers

In Sentences

Reference to an Accompanying Illustration

Names in the Title of a Court Case

Style

Within an Italic Block of Text

Within a Sans Serif Block of Text

Titles of Publications

Bible Translator’s Name in Place of the Title

Computer Programs

Embodying the word “Bible”

Foreign Title With Translated Title

News services

Newspapers

Opening Article Foilowing a Possessive

Plurals of Titles of Society’s Publications

Quotes That Are Part of a Title

Recordings

Sacred Writings

“The” as the First Word in a Title

Titles Having Punctuation

When a Title Is Abridged

With Margin, Marginal, and Footnote

Numbers

Numbers Under 11 With Larger Numbers

Ordinals

Specific and Round Numbers

Hundred, Thousand, Million, Billion

Inexact Numbers in Figures

Specific and Round Numbers Over Ten

General Usage

Abbreviations and Symbols

Addresses

Large Numbers at the Beginning of a Sentence

B.C.E. and C.E. Dates in the Same Sentence

Distinguishing Between Length and Area

Area

Length

Hyphenating Fractions When Expressed in Words

Preferable Form

Usage: “of a” or “of an”

Usage: “th” or “ths”

When to Spell Out Fractions

Money

Dollars With No Cents

Foreign Currency

Less Than a Dollar

Money Terms Wherein Symbols Are Used

“One”

Page Numbers

Percent

Ratios and Proportions

References

Scientific and Technical Writing

When Not to Use “A.M.” or “P.M.”

Two Separate Figures

Connected Numbers

Numbering of Publication Elements

Under 20

Higher Than 19

Three or More Digits

Second Having More Digits Than the First

Two Year Numbers That Are Connected

Connected Numbers of Different Classes

Successive Divisions of Time

With “From” or “Between”

Verse Numbers

With B.C.E. or C.E

End-of-Line Division

Numbers of Five or More Digits

Plurals of Figures

Contraction of Figure for Years

Verbs With Number Terms

Expressions of Amount

Verbs and the Word “Number”

Quotes

Purpose of Quotes

Art Objects

Direct Quotes

Articles (Part of Speech)

Brackets and Parentheses in a Quoted Source

Foreign Language Quotations

Interruption of Quoted Speech

Interviews

More Than One Paragraph

Part of Text

Quoted Text Having Closing Punctuation

Quotes From Different Sources

Indirect Quotes and Statements

Indirect Quotes

Indirect Statements

Quote Rules With Certain Expressions

When Quoting a Source

Questions

Quotes With Other Punctuation

Footnote Symbols and Reference Markers

Citing Different Translations

Diacritics

Expressions

Awake! and Publications for Public Distribution

The Watchtower and Internal Publications

Headings

Hypothetical Quotes or Questions

Single Quotation Marks

Altered Quote

Brackets

Closing Punctuation

Quotes Within Quotes

Thoughts

Special Usage

Irony or Misapplication

Preventing Misreading

Special Intent

Titles of Textual Works

Appendix

Dictionary Usage

Watch Tower Terminology

Line Endings in Composed Material

Topics Considered

Abbreviations

Bible Books Names in Field Publications

Citations of Chapters

Citations Using the Word “Verse(s)”

Bible Book Names in Internal Publications

Citation of Chapters

Citation Using the Word “Verse(s)”

Regular Abbreviations for Internal Publications

Special Abbreviations for Internal Publications

States of the United States

Miscellaneous Abbreviations

Ampersand

“Etc.”

“Fort,” “Island,” “Mount”

“Saint”

“Versus”

Parts of Publications

Field Publications

Internal Publications

Personal Titles

Plurals of Abbreviations

Abbreviations Containing No Periods

Abbreviations Containing Periods

Units of Measurement

Punctuation

Acronyms

Names of Organizations

Punctuated Abbreviation Ends a Sentence

Single Word Represented

Watch Tower Capitalization

Weights and Measures

Area and Volume

Change in Physical State

USE OF ABBREVIATIONS

1 The proper use of abbreviations depends on the nature of the text. Apart from certain customary exceptions, such as “Mr.,” “Dr.,” “a.m.,” and “B.C.E.,” abbreviations are not used in straight text. They are appropriately used in tabular matter and lists.
2 For an extensive list of abbreviations, see Webster’s.
3 When abbreviations listed in this Manual differ from those found in Webster’s, follow the Manual.

BIBLE

Bible Translations

4 Write out names of Bible translations the first time they appear in an article. Alternatively, the short name may be used at the first occurrence. Symbols may be used thereafter in that article.
5 A beginning article in the title of a Bible translation is dropped following a possessive. The article is retained in references.

Examples:

6 Wherever abbreviations are appropriate, the following are used. Titles are italicized in Watch Tower publications.

Symbol	Full Name	Short Name
An	The Anchor Bible	Anchor Bible
AS	American Standard Version	American Standard Version
AT	The Bible—An American Translation [Smith, Goodspeed]	An American Translation
Ba	Septuagint [S. Bagster and Sons]	Bagster
Be	Berkeley Version of the New Testament	Berkeley Version
Be	The New Berkeley Version in Modern English	New Berkeley Version
By	The Bible in Living English	Byington
CB	A Translation in the Language of the People	Charles B. Williams
CC	Catholic Confraternity Version	Confraternity
CK	A New Translation in Plain English	Charles K. Williams
Da	The ‘Holy Scriptures ’ [J. N. Darby]	Darby
Dy	Douay Version	Douay
ED	The Emphatic Diaglott [B. Wilson]	Diaglott
ER	English Revised Version	English Revised Version
EVD	The Holy Bible—English Version for the Deaf	English Version for the Deaf

Symbol	Full Name	Short Name
Fn	The Holy Bible in Modern English [Ferrar Fenton]	Fenton
IB	The Interpreter’s Bible	Interpreter’s Bible
Int	The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures	Kingdom Interlinear
JB	The Jerusalem Bible	Jerusalem Bible
JP	The Holy Scriptures [The Jewish Publication Society of America	Jewish Publication Society
KJ	King James Version	King James Version
Kx	The Holy Bible [Ronald A. Knox]	Knox
La	The Holy Bible From Ancient Eastern Manuscripts [George M. Lamsa]	Lamsa
Le	The Twenty-Four Books of the Holy Scriptures	Leeser
LXX	Septuagint	Septuagint
Mo	A New Translation of the Bible Moffatt [James
MR	The Modern Reader’s Bible [Richard G. Moulton]	Moulton
NAB	The New American Bible	New American Bible
NAS	New American Standard Bible Standard	New American
NE	The New English Bible	New English Bible
NIV	The Holy Bible—New International Version	New International Version
NJB	The New Jerusalem Bible	New Jerusalem Bible
NLV	Holy Bible—New Life Version	New Life Version
NTIV	The New Testament in an Improved Version	New Testament Improved Version
NW	New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures	New World Translation
Ph	The New Testament in Modern English [J. B. Phil-	Phillips
REB	The Revised English Bible	Revised English Bible
Ref.	New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures —With References	Reference Bible
Ro	The Emphasised Bible [Joseph B. Rotherham]	Rotherham
RS	Revised Standard Version	Revised Standard
SBB	Soncino Books of the Bible	Soncino
Sd	The Authentic New Testament [Hugh J. Schonfield]	Schonfield
SEB	The Simple English Bible	Simple English Bible
Sh	The New Testament [Samuel Sharpe]	Sharpe

Symbol	Full Name	Short Name
Sp	The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ [Francis Aloysius Spencer]	Spencer
Ta	Tanakh—A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures	Tanakh
TC	The Twentieth Century New Testament	Twentieth Century New Testament
TEV	Today’s English Version	Today’s English Version
Vg	Vulgate [Latin, Jerome]	Vulgate
We	The New Testament in Modern Speech [Richard Francis Weymouth]	Weymouth
Yg	The Holy Bible [Robert Young]	Young

WARNING: The Living Bible should never be quoted in any of the Society’s publications.

BOOKS OF THE BIBLE

Bible Book Names in Field Publications

7 Names of Bible books in Scripture citations are spelled out in publications that are for field distribution.

Citation of Chapters

8 In Scripture citations for full chapters, the word “chapter” is spelled out and a comma is used between the Bible book name and the chapter number. When such references are part of the text, no comma is used.—See also paragraph 267.

Examples:

When man rebelled in the garden of Eden, he rejected God as his Ruler. (Genesis, chapter 3) This was evident in ancient Israel.

Jesus’ prophecy about the last days, as found in Matthew chapter 24, is often used in the field ministry.

Citation Using the Word “Verse (s)”

9 When a Scripture citation in text includes the word “verse(s),” a comma is used after the chapter number and the word “verse(s)” is spelled out. The word “verse(s)” and its number are set off by commas.

Examples:

The first prophecy of the Bible is found at Genesis chapter 3, verse 15, and embodies a sacred secret that was progressively revealed through the Scriptures.

Psalm 24, verses 7 to 10, celebrates the triumphant entry of the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem.

Bible Book Names in Internal Publications

10 The names of Bible books in Scripture citations are abbreviated in publications that are largely for internal organizational use by Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Citation of Chapters

11 In Scripture citations for full chapters, a comma is used between Bible book and chapter. When such references are part of the text, no comma is used.

Examples:

When man rebelled in the garden of Eden, he rejected God as his Ruler.—Gen., chap. 3.

Jesus’ prophecy about the last days, as found in Matthew chapter 24, is often used in the field ministry.

[Field publication as well as internal publication]

Citation Using the Word “Verse (s)”

12 When a Scripture citation in text includes the word “verse(s),” the style for internal publications is the same as for field publications.

Regular Abbreviations for Internal Publications

13 Names of Bible books are abbreviated in citations in publications for internal use. Following are the regular abbreviations.

Gen.	Isa.	Luke
Ex.	Jer.	John
Lev.	Lam.	Acts
Num.	Ezek.	Rom.
Deut.	Dan.	1 and 2 Cor.
Josh.	Hos.	Gal.
Judg.	Joel	Eph.
Ruth	Amos	Phil.
1 and 2 Sam.	Obad.	Col.
1 and 2 Ki.	Jonah	1 and 2 Thess.
1 and 2 Chron.	Mic.	1 and 2 Tim.
Ezra	Nah.	Titus
Neh.	Hab.	Philem.
Esther	Zeph.	Heb.
Job	Hag.	Jas.
Ps. (Plural and singular)	Zech.	1 and 2 Pet.
Prov.	Mal.	1, 2, and 3 John
Eccl.	Matt.	Jude
Song of Sol.	Mark	Rev.

Special Abbreviations for Internal Publications

14 Special abbreviations of Bible book names are used in publications having restricted space, such as Indexes and talk outlines.

Ge	Eze	Eph
Ex	Da	Php
Le	Ho	Col
Nu	Joe	1Thand2Th
De	Am	ITi and 2Ti
Jos	Ob	Tit
Jg	Jon	Phm
Ru	Mic	Heb
1Saand2Sa	Na	Jas
1 Ki and 2Ki	Hab	IPe and 2Pe
1Chand2Ch	Zep	1 Jo, 2Jo, and 3Jo
Ezr	Hag	Jude

Job

Ps (Plural and singular)

Ca [Song of Solomon]

Isa

Jer

Zec

Mal

Joh

ICo and 2Co

DATES

15 The names of days of the week and of months are not abbreviated in straight text. The following abbreviations are used in tabular matter and lists.—See also paragraph 411.

Days:

Sun.	Mon. Tues.	Wed.	Thurs.	Fri.	Sat.
Months:
Jan.	Feb.	Mar.		Apr.
May	June	July		Aug.
Sept.	Oct.	Nov.		Dec.

GEOGRAPHIC TERMS

Addresses

16 When abbreviations of addresses are needed for tabular matter and lists, the following are used

Full name	Abbreviation	Full name	Abbreviation
Apartment	Apt.	Fort	Ft.
Avenue	Ave.	Freeway	Fwy.
Boulevard	Blvd.	Heights	Hts.
Basement	Bsmt.	Highway	Hwy.
Block	Blk.	Hospital	Hosp.
Building	Bldg.	Lane	Ln.
Manager	Mgr.	Saint	St.
Mount	Mt.	Street	St.
Room	Rm.	Turnpike	Tpk.
Parkway	Pkwy.

Compass Points

17 Compass points are spelled out in text but are abbreviated on handbills, in convention lists, and on similar items. In addresses no periods are used in compound compass directions, but periods are always used in single compass points.—See also paragraph 93.

Examples:

E. S. W. SE NNW SSW

Lands and Countries

18 Names of lands and countries are usually spelled out in text.

“United States”

19 The use of “United States” is governed by the following rules:

When used as a noun, “United States” is spelled out.

When used as an adjective, “United States” is abbreviated “U.S.”

When used with currency, “United States” is abbreviated “U.S.”

When following a state name, “United States” is abbreviated “U.S.A.”

Examples:

The government of the United States

The U.S. government

$3.50 (U.S.)

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Cedar Point, Ohio, U.S.A.

States of the United States

20 Abbreviations of the names of the states of the United States are not used in general text.

21 When applicable, the following are the abbreviations for states, territories, and possessions of the United States. The two-letter form is used only with the ZIP code and in convention lists.

Long abbr.	Short abbr.	Long abbr.	Short abbr.	Long abbr.	Short abbr.
Ala.	AL	Ky.	KY	Ohio	OH
Alaska	AK	La.	LA	Okla.	OK
Ariz.	AZ	Maine	ME	Oreg.	OR
Ark.	AR	Md.	MD	Pa.	PA
Calif.	CA	Mass.	MA	P.R.	PR
Colo.	CO	Mich.	MI	R.I.	RI
Conn.	CT	Minn.	MN	S.C.	SC
Del.	DE	Miss.	MS	S. Dak.	SD
D.C.	DC	Mo.	MO	Tenn.	TN
Fla.	FL	Mont.	MT	Tex.	TX
Ga.	GA	Nebr.	NE	Utah	UT
Guam	GU	Nev.	NV	Vt.	VT
Hawaii	HI	N.H.	NH	V.I.	VI
Idaho	ID	N.J.	NJ	Va.	VA
Ill.	IL	N. Mex.	NM	Wash.	WA
Ind.	IN	N.Y.	NY	W. Va.	WV
Iowa	IA	N.C.	NC	Wis.	WI
Kans.	KS	N. Dak.	ND	Wyo.	WY

MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS

Ampersand

22 The ampersand (&) should never be used as a substitute for the word “and” in text. The character may be used in titles and in names of companies.

Examples:

U.S.News & World Report

Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co.

“Etc.”

23 The abbreviation “etc.” should not be used in text, and it should never be preceded by “and.” Neither “etc.” nor its equivalent “and so forth” should be used after examples that are preceded by the expression “such as.”

Examples:

Not: The eating of some animals, such as the rock badger, the hare, the pig, the camel, etc., was forbidden under God’s Law to Israel.

But: The eating of some animals, such as the rock badger, the hare, the pig, and the camel, was forbidden under God’s Law to Israel.

“Fort,” “Island,” “Mount”

24 In geographic names, “Fort,” “Island,” and “Mount” are spelled out in text but are abbreviated in lists. They may be abbreviated on maps if required for space.

“Saint”

25 In geographic names, “Saint” is abbreviated.

Examples:

In 1941 a convention was held in St. Louis.

St. Pierre and Miquelon had a 63-percent increase during the last service year.

26 “Saint” in personal titles is to be spelled out and quoted or otherwise qualified to indicate that the term is misapplied.

Examples:

Among the so-called saints demoted by the Catholic Church were “Saint” Valentine and “Saint” Nicholas.

Which “saint” is invoked depends on what type of request the petitioner wishes to make.

“Versus”

27 “Versus” should be spelled out in general text and in titles. In titles and subheads, follow capitalization rule. For legal cases only, the preference is “v. ” (rather than “vs. ”) set in italics between italicized names of the parties involved.—See also paragraph 377.

Examples:

The issue of true worship versus false can be clarified by considering such scriptures as Matthew 7:21-23 and 1 John 4:3.

For information on distribution of literature without the approval of a local or state official, see Cantwell v. State of Connecticut.

PARTS OF PUBLICATIONS

28 Abbreviations of the names of the following parts of publications are not used in text, but the abbreviations may be used in tabular matter and reference lists.

Singular, full name	Singular, abbreviation	Plural, full name	Plural, abbreviation
appendix	app.

Singular, full name	Singular, abbreviation	Plural, full name	Plural, abbreviation
book	bk.	books	bks.
chapter	chap.	chapters	chaps.
column	col.	columns	cols.
edition	ed.	editions	eds.
example	ex.	examples	exs.
figure	fig.	figures	figs.
footnote	ftn.	footnotes	ftns.
line	1.	lines	11.
manuscript	ms.	manuscripts	mss.
number	no.	numbers	nos.
page	p.	pages	pp.
paragraph	par.	paragraphs	pars.
verse	vs.	verses	vss.
volume	vol.	volumes	vols.

29 For contractions and abbreviations for such features as yearly service charts and monthly service charts, see the Yearbook and Our Kingdom Ministry.

Field Publications

30 In field publications, abbreviations are not used in text, in parenthetical material, or in footnotes.

Internal Publications

31 In internal publications, abbreviations of names of publication parts are used in parenthetical material and in footnotes when giving the location of cited and quoted material.—See also paragraph 380.

Examples:

Elder discusses material with two experienced publishers (Our Kingdom Ministry insert, June 1996, pars. 20-2).

See The Watchtower, April 1, 1934, pp. 99-106.

PERSONAL TITLES

32 Titles denoting position or rank should be spelled out in general text. This does not apply to “Dr.,” “Mr.,” and “Mrs.,” except when these are used as substitutes for personal names in direct address.
33 Two titles of the same significance should not be used, one preceding the name and the other following.

Examples:

Not: Dr. Walter Franklin, M.D.

But: Dr. Walter Franklin

Or: Walter Franklin, M.D.

34 Two titles of different significance can be used, one preceding the name and the other following.

Example:

Professor Theodore Howard, D.D.S.

PLURALS OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations Containing No Periods

35 To form plurals of capped abbreviations that contain no periods, follow Webster’s. If a plural is not listed in Webster’s, add a lowercase “s” without an apostrophe.

Examples:

Iqs PTAs

APRs CEOs

Abbreviations Containing Periods

36 For plurals of abbreviations having internal periods, add an apostrophe and a lowercase “s” to the abbreviation. (To determine what the caps stand for, see Webster’s or an encyclopedia.)

Examples:

M.B.A.’s M.D.’s Ph.D.’s

Units of Measurement

37 Abbreviations for units (weight, measure, time) are the same for singular and plural in both the U.S. system and the metric system. Periods are used only when needed to prevent misreading.

Examples:

Doz ft lb

Ml km yr

a. in. hr

PUNCTUATION

Acronyms

38 Periods are not used in acronyms.

Examples:

AIDS HIV DNA

Names of Organizations

39 Periods are not used in expressions in which the letters stand for the names of organizations.

Examples:

IBSA FBI

NATO UN

40 Government agencies, service organizations, fraternal societies, labor unions, and other groups are often designated by their initials. If used only once in an article or a chapter, the name is given in full. If used more than once, the name is given in full and is followed by the acronym in parentheses. Use only the acronym in all subsequent references in that article or chapter.

Examples:

World Health Organization (WHO)

National Organization for Women (NOW)

Punctuated Abbreviation Ends a Sentence

41 When an abbreviation having periods ends a sentence, the final period of the abbreviation also serves as the closing period of the sentence.

Example:

Jerusalem was destroyed in 607 B.C.E.

42 If a statement takes closing punctuation other than a period, the required punctuation is added following the period of the abbreviation.

Example:

The alarm went off at 4:30 a.m.!

Single Word Represented

43 Periods are not used when capped letters represent a single word.

Examples:

IV [intravenous] TB [tuberculosis]

TV [television] PS [postscript]

TEMPERATURE

“Degree” Used

44 When the word “degree” is used, spell out “Fahrenheit” or “Celsius.”—Note: Do not use “Centigrade.”

Example:

Most people are comfortable when the temperature is between 70 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit.

Figures Used

45 When temperature is expressed in figures with the degree sign, the name of the system of measurement is abbreviated. The unit of measurement on the Fahrenheit scale is “°F.” and on the Celsius scale “°C.” Note that there is no space between the degree sign and the letter of abbreviation.

Example:

Most people are comfortable when the temperature is between 21°C. and 27°C.

[Notice that the symbol is used with both figures.]

Kelvin Scale

46 When the unit “kelvin” is used, do not use the word “degrees” or the degree sign (°) with it. The plural, “kelvins,” is valid.

Examples:

On the temperature scale devised by Lord Kelvin, the temperature unit is “kelvin,” lowercased, and the abbreviation of the unit is “K,” capped without a period.

On the Kelvin scale, the boiling point of water is 373 kelvins (373 K).

TIME

With A.M. and P.M.

47 When abbreviations are used with time of day, figures are used.—See also paragraph 437.

Abbreviations:

a.m. (ante meridiem) Before noon

p.m. (postmeridiem) After noon

m. (meridies) Noon (12:00 p.m., midnight)

Examples:

We work until 5:00 p.m.

The meeting begins at 7:00 p.m.

With “O’clock”

48 When “o’clock” is used, follow the number rule.—See also paragraph 436.

Examples:

Not: The meeting begins at 7 o’clock.

But: The meeting begins at seven o’clock.

Not: The meeting ends at eleven o’clock.

But: The meeting ends at 11 o’clock.

WATCH TOWER PUBLICATIONS

49 For a listing of mnemonic symbols for Watch Tower publications, see the Watchtower Publications List for the current year. For shortened forms of titles, see Our Kingdom Ministry.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

50 Always spell out units of weights and measures when they occur in text outside parentheses and brackets.

Examples:

Not: In this particular test, a ml of salt solution is injected.

But: In this particular test, a milliliter of salt solution is injected.

Not: The Sea of Galilee is approximately 13 mi. long and about 71/2 mi. wide.

But: The Sea of Galilee is approximately 13 miles long and about 7.5 miles wide.

51 Use abbreviations inside parentheses and brackets in internal publications.

Examples:

Not: An inscription on the tunnel wall reads in part: “The water flowed from the spring toward the reservoir for 1,200 cubits [533 meters (1,750 feet)], and the height of the rock above the head(s) of the quarrymen was 100 cubits [45 meters (146 feet)].”—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 321.

But: An inscription on the tunnel wall reads in part: “The water flowed from the spring toward the reservoir for 1,200 cubits [533 m (1,750 ft)], and the height of the rock above the head(s) of the quarrymen was 100 cubits [45 m (146 ft)].”—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, page 321.

Not: Evidently the Israelites used a cubit that was one handbreadth (2.9 inches) longer than the common cubit.

But: Evidently the Israelites used a cubit that was one handbreadth (2.9 in.) longer than the common cubit.

Area and Volume

52 Terms of square and cubic measurements are to be stated as “sq mm,” “cu mm,” rather than “mm²” and “mm³.” (The same rule applies, of course, to “sq in.,” “cu ft,” and so on.)

Area=Volume

sq mm, square millimeter sq cm, square centimeter sq m, square meter

cu mm, cubic millimeter cu cm, cubic centimeter cu m, cubic meter

Change in Physical State

53 Various units are employed to describe the nature of change affecting the physical state of some entity, such as change of volume, rate of flow, rate of movement.

Speed

54 Speed is rate of movement regardless of direction.—See also paragraph 238.

Linear

fps, feet per second

fpm, feet per minute

mph, miles per hour km/hr, kilometers per hour

Rotary and Cyclic

rpm, revolutions per minute

Hz, one cycle per second

kHz, one thousand cycles per second

MHz, one million cycles per second

Volume and Weight

55 Volume and weight primarily reflect a change of quantity.

Volume Weight

cfin, cubic feet per minute Ib/sec, pounds per second

gps, gallons per second Ib/hr, pounds per hour

gpm, gallons per minute

Metric System

56 The three principal units of measurement in the international metric system are the meter, the gram, and the liter.

Length	Weight	Capacity
mm, millimeter	mg, milligram	ml, milliliter
cm, centimeter	g, gram	L, liter (cap to prevent misreading “1” as the numeral 1)
m, meter km, kilometer	kg, kilogram	kl, kiloliter

U.S. System

57 For abbreviations in the U.S. measurement system, see Webster’s.

YEAR IN FIGURES

58 A year in figures is abbreviated, or contracted, by removing the leading two digits and replacing them with an apostrophe.—See also paragraph 453.

Examples:

’60 [1960]

’75 [1975]

Topics Considered

Capitalization

Dictionary Capitalization

Ancient Manuscripts

Archaeological Objects

Astronomical Terms

Heavenly Bodies

Bible Terms

Bible Terms Associated With the Word “Day”

When “Day” Follows the Term

When “Day” Precedes the Term

Bible Terms Used as Common Nouns

Common Noun Form as an Adjective

Bible Terms Used as Proper Nouns

Proper Noun Form as an Adjective

Book Parts

Buildings and Organizations

Common Noun Elements

Plurals of Names

Names of Congregation Meetings

Family Titles Used as Names

Correspondence

Games

Geographic Terms

Coast

Common Noun Elements in Place Names

Compass Points

Geographic Divisions

Regions and Localities

“River,” “Mountain,” and Similar Terms

Involving Foreign Words

Representing the Whole Geographic Name

State

Governmental and Legal Terms

Governmental Bodies

Judicial Bodies

A Specific Court

“Court” as a Part of a Full Name

“Court” as a Substitute for a Full Name

Not a Specific Court

Laws

Legislative Bodies and Legislative Action

Holidays and Special Periods

Hyphenated Compounds

In Text

In Titles and Headings

Jehovah

Adjectives Ending in “ly” and ’’fill”

Substitute Terms With “Christ”

Adjectives Ending in “ly” and “fid”

British Commonwealth Text

“Cardinal” in Roman Catholic Usage

Generic Use

Personal Name Attached

Titles as Synonyms in Direct Address

Photo Credits

Poetry

Quotes From the Bible

Quotes Not From the Bible

Seasons and Weather

Signs

Special Watch Tower Capitalization

Terms in Watch Tower Publications

Titles, Headlines, and Subheads

Articles, Conjunctions, and Prepositions

Compound Prepositions

Capitalization and Artistic Layout

First and Last Word

Following a Dash

Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs

Second Element of Hyphenated Words

Words of Four or More Letters

Trademarks

Common Noun Identified by a Trademark

Following an Exclamation Point or a Question Mark

The Words “Yes” and “No”

WATCH TOWER CAPITALIZATION

59 Capitalization lends distinction, importance, and emphasis to words. Overuse of capitalization tends to defeat this effect. Capitalization should thus be used sparingly where optional. The standards herein specify usage designed for consistent style in Watch Tower publications. They draw on public sources and adapt them as needed to create Watch Tower style.

DICTIONARY CAPITALIZATION

60 The capitalization standards set out in Webster’s dictionaries should be applied in the following order:

Webster’s Collegiate currently approved for proofreading

Latest available edition of Webster’s unabridged

Webster’s unabridged, the second edition

61 Biographical and geographical sections of Webster’s Collegiate take precedence over Webster’s biographical and geographical dictionaries.
62 Words listed in Webster’s as “cap,” “usually cap,” and “often cap” are capped. However, the Standards Manual takes precedence over the dictionaries.

ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS

63 Cap the titles of ancient manuscripts. These titles are not italicized.

Examples:

Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 1

Aleppo Codex

Codex Vaticanus (Vatican Manuscript 1209)

Dead Sea Scrolls

Received Text

64 Lowercase the word “codex” when it is used in the generic sense.

Examples:

Not: Christians pioneered the use of the Codex.

But: Christians pioneered the use of the codex.

65 When a plural generic term follows two or more proper names of ancient manuscripts, it should be lowercase.

Example:

For translators of the Bible, the Sinaitic and Alexandrine manuscripts furnish invaluable insights.

66 When a plural generic term follows a proper name that identifies a collection of ancient manuscripts, it should be lowercase.

Examples:

The Chester Beatty papyri are the most precious manuscripts in the Chester Beatty Library, located in Dublin, Ireland.

The Fouad 266 papyri were prepared in the second or the first century B.C.E.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBJECTS

67 Cap names of specific archaeological objects, even when this rule does not agree with Webster’s.

Examples:

Moabite Stone Nabonidus Chronicle

Rosetta Stone Sennacherib’s Prism

ASTRONOMICAL TERMS

Heavenly Bodies

68 Cap the names of stars, planets, and constellations according to Webster’s.
69 Cap the words “sun,” “moon,” and “earth” when they are used in context with proper nouns designating other astronomical bodies.

Examples:

The diameter of Betelgeuse is greater than the distance between Earth and Sun.

The atmosphere of Mars cannot support the creatures of Earth.

70 Never cap the word “earth” when it is preceded by the article “the” or when “the” is implied by the context.

Examples:

The preaching has spread to the four corners of the earth.

Jehovah created the sun, the moon, and the stars to serve as luminaries for people on earth.

71 Always cap the word “earth” when it is preceded by the word “planet.”

Examples:

The planet Earth will forever be inhabited.

What future awaits our planet, Earth?

BIBLE TERMS

72 Bible terms are capitalized according to their usage in a sentence.

Bible Terms Associated With the Word “Day”

When “Day” Follows the Term

73 If a Bible term is used as a proper noun and “day” follows the term, “day” is capped if it completes the expression. If it is used as a common noun, “day” is lowercased.

Examples:

The high priest entered the Most Holy only on Atonement Day.

Righteousness will be taught during Judgment Day.

Jehovah gave the Sabbath day only to the Israelites. The concept of a sabbath day appears in secular law.

The idea of a judgment day is found in a number of religions.

When “Day” Precedes the Term

74 If the word “day” precedes the Bible term, capping is determined by whether the term can be read properly without using “day.” If it can, “day” is not capped.

Examples:

The Israelites fasted on the Day of Atonement.

Righteousness will be taught earth wide on the Day of Judgment.

The Christian congregation was formed and began its work on the day of Pentecost.

Bible Terms Used as Common Nouns

75 If a Bible term is used as a common noun, it is not capped. This usage is generally revealed by the presence of the indefinite article “a” or “an.”

Examples:

A global flood destroyed a world of ungodly people.

Jesus promised the evildoer an earthly paradise.

A sabbath resting continues for the people of God.

Common Noun Form as an Adjective

76 The adjective form follows the same capitalization rule as the noun form.

Examples:

The great crowd hope to live on a paradise earth.

Virtually all nations and tribes have a flood legend.

Bible Terms Used as Proper Nouns

77 If a Bible term is used as a proper noun, it is capped. This usage will generally be revealed by the presence of the definite article “the” or some demonstrative adjective, such as “this” or “that.” Proper noun usage can also be indicated by context.

Examples:

The Deluge forced the sons of God to dematerialize.

Established by Jehovah in the heavens, this Kingdom will never be destroyed.

In expression of God’s righteousness, that Flood destroyed only wicked people.

Adam and Eve were placed in the Paradise that God had prepared.

Proper Noun Form as an Adjective

78 The adjective form of a Bible term that is a proper noun follows the same capitalization rule as the proper noun form.

Example:

The Flood survivors were Noah and his wife and their three sons and their wives.

Many Kingdom blessings will be so remarkable that we cannot now imagine them.

The activities of the Israelites were circumscribed by Sabbath regulations.

BOOK PARTS

79 Cap “chapter,” “contents,” “index,” “appendix,” and other names of book parts only when the part named is within the book that is making the reference. If referring to another book or to Bible books, do not cap.

Examples:

The meanings of the technical terms used herein can be found in the Glossary.

[Same book]

See Contents on page 5.

[Same book]

The interested student will find in Chapter 21, "Judgment Day and Afterward," a comprehensive explanation of the subject.

[Same book]

Please see the book Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life, chapter 2.

You will find the opening part of this prophecy in Matthew chapter 24.

80 Cap the word “volume” and similar terms when referring to a multivolume work.

Examples:

Construction details and furnishings of Solomon’s temple are described in Insight, Volume 2, pages 1076-8.

Polycarp reportedly based his stand on the authority of the apostles, according to Eusebius, Book 5, chapter 24.

BUILDINGS AND ORGANIZATIONS

81 Cap the names of buildings, organizations, and institutions.

Examples:

Assembly Hall

Kingdom Hall

Boston Symphony Orchestra

University of Chicago

Common Noun Elements

82 Common noun elements of proper nouns, such as “club,” “college,” “company,” “hotel,” “railroad,” and “society,” should not be capped when they are used in the plural with two or more proper nouns.

Examples:

the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific railroads

Simmons and Radcliffe colleges

the Warner and Paramount theaters

Plurals of Names

83 When the name of a building, an organization, or an institution is plural, retain the cap.

Examples:

Assembly Halls

Kingdom Halls

Hospital Liaison Committees

Names of Congregation Meetings

84 When the name of a congregation meeting is plural, retain the cap.

Examples:

Congregation Book Studies

Service Meetings

Public Meetings

Watchtower Studies

Watch Tower Publications

85 When the name of a Watch Tower publication is plural, retain the cap as well as the italics.—See also paragraph 388.

Examples:

Our Kingdom Ministries

Indexes

Watchtowers

Yearbooks

CORRESPONDENCE

86 In the salutation of a letter, the first word of the salutation and the name of the person addressed (or the noun used in place of the name) are capped.

Examples:

Dear Brother Smith:

Dear Brothers:

Dear Sir:

Gentlemen:

FAMILY TITLES USED AS NAMES

87 Cap such words as “father,” “mother,” and “uncle” when they are used as proper nouns; otherwise they are lowercase.

Examples:

I have received a letter from Mother.

I have received a letter from my mother.

Yesterday Uncle John came.

Did you know that my uncle had come?

GAMES

88 Names of games are not capped unless they are trademarks. Check Webster’s.

GEOGRAPHIC TERMS

Coast

89 Lowercase the word “coast” when it is used with names of land areas.

Examples:

coast of Florida

California coast

90 Cap the word “coast” when it is used with the name of a body of water.

Examples:

Atlantic Coast

Pacific Coast

Common Noun Elements in Place Names

91 Cap “street,” “avenue,” “park,” “square,” “airport,” “stadium,” and similar common noun elements when used as part of a proper noun.

Examples:

Adams Street

Kennedy Airport

Prospect Park

Kirov Stadium

92 Lowercase such common noun elements when they are used in the plural with proper nouns.

Examples:

Union and Market streets.

LaGuardia and Newark airports

Compass Points

93 Names of points of the compass, and adjectives derived from them, are capped when they are part of a name established by usage, not when they simply denote direction or compass point.—See also paragraph 17.

Examples:

California and Nevada are considered part of the Far West.

In the Deep South, there is a Baptist church on almost every corner.

A traveler suffers from jet lag when flying either east or west.

Jericho is near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea.

Geographic Divisions

94 Cap names of the divisions of the world, of a continent, or of a country.

Examples:

Kenya is located in East Africa.

The Middle East is a caldron of dissension.

The Far North has extreme climatic variations.

Customs in the South differ from those in the North as well as from those in the West.

Regions and Localities

95 Cap popular designations for regions and localities.

Examples:

Bible Belt

East Side, West Side

City of Churches

Eastern Shore (Chesapeake Bay)

Deep South

Great Plains

District of the Jordan

West Coast

“River,” “Mountain,” and Similar Terms

96 Cap generic geographic terms, such as “river,” “lake,” “sea,” “mountain,” and “valley,” when they are used with a proper name and form an organic part of it.

Examples:

Jordan River

Kidron Valley

Lake Van

Mediterranean Sea

Mount Hermon

Plain of Sharon

Sea of Galilee

Valley of Hinnom

97 When a plural generic geographic term follows two or more proper names, it is lowercased.

Examples:

Himalaya and Andes mountains

Jordan and Euphrates rivers

98 When a generic geographic term precedes a proper name, it is capped, even when it is in the plural, unless the generic term itself is preceded by the article “the.”

Examples:

Lake Erie

the river Jordan

Mounts Hermon and Tabor

99 When a generic geographic term, such as “valley” or “range,” follows a capped generic term, it is lowercase.

Examples:

Jordan River valley

Rocky Mountain range

Involving Foreign Words

100 Some names contain foreign words that are the equivalents of generic terms.

Examples:

Rio Grande

Sahara

Sierra Nevada

Technically, these words should not be accompanied by a generic term. In informal contexts, however, such forms as “Rio Grande River,” “Sahara Desert,” and “Sierra Nevada Mountains” are often used.

Representing the Whole Geographic Name

101 When generic terms are used alone for the whole geographic name, they should be lowercase, even if the meaning is specific, except in such instances as the following:

Examples:

the Canal [the Panama Canal]

the Falls [Niagara Falls]

the Channel [the English Channel]

the Gulf [Gulf of Mexico]

State

102 Lowercase the word “state” when it is used in a general sense and when it does not follow a proper noun.

Examples:

Taxes are high in the state of New York.

The city of Manaus is in the state of Amazonas.

103 Cap the word “state” when it follows a proper noun, when it refers to an entire country or the government thereof, and when it refers to a region of a country. For specifics, see Webster’s unabridged.

Examples:

Taxes are high in New York State.

The State Church of Denmark is the Lutheran Church.

Maine is considered to be one of the New England States.

When Church and State conspire to control the people, there is trouble.

They attended state-sponsored schools. The city of Manaus is in Amazonas State. But: Nazi state, Communist state

GOVERNMENTAL AND LEGAL TERMS

Governmental Bodies

104 Cap the names of governmental departments, bureaus, offices, and services.

Examples:

the Cabinet

Department of the Interior

Census Bureau

Internal Revenue Service

105 Lowercase terms that are used alone in place of the full name. Exceptions may occur in articles submitted by branches.

Examples:

association bureau department

authority commission panel

Agency Board Council

Judicial Bodies

A Specific Court

“Court” as a Part of a Full Name

106 Cap the word “court” when it appears as part of the full name of a specific court.

Examples:

European Court of Human Rights

International Court of Arbitration

U.S. Supreme Court, the Supreme Court

“Court” as a Substitute for a Full Name

107 Cap the word “court” only when it appears as a substitute for the full name of the U.S. Supreme Court. Otherwise lowercase.

Examples:

U.S. Supreme Court, the Supreme Court, the Court

Court of Appeals of the Fifth District, the court

Not a Specific Court

108 Lowercase the word “court” when it does not refer to a specific court.

Examples:

The case went to the court of appeals.

But: The case went to the Court of Appeals of the State of Ohio.

Laws

109 Cap such words as “act,” “law,” and “amendment” only in the formal titles of bills that have become law. Lowercase such words when used in general reference.

Examples:

Equal Rights Amendment

Public Law 94-553

the prohibition amendment

the Tariff Act

established by an act of Congress

the Clean Water Act

Legislative Bodies and Legislative Action

110 Cap the names of legislative bodies. Lowercase generic references to legislative action and legislative bodies.

Examples:

Chicago City Council

Congress

House of Commons, the Commons

House of Lords, the Lords

House of Representatives, the House

Texas Legislature

the lower house, the two houses

the state senate, the state legislature

the city council

parliamentary law

congressional, senatorial

HOLIDAYS AND SPECIAL PERIODS

111 Cap the names of holidays, festivals, and other special days or periods.—See Webster’s.

HYPHENATED COMPOUNDS

In Text

112 All elements of hyphenated compounds in text follow the rules of capitalization for simple words.

Examples:

Man is not a life-giver.

Jehovah is the Life-Giver.

Beginning a Sentence

113 If a hyphenated compound begins a sentence, only the first element is capped unless the compound is a substitute title referring to Jehovah or to Jesus, in which case all elements are capped.

Examples:

Down-to-earth people are hard to find.

Life-giving water flows from the throne of God.

“Life-Giver” bespeaks Jehovah’s Creatorship.

In Titles and Headings

114 Hyphenated compounds in titles and headings follow the cap rules for titles.—See also paragraphs 150-8.

Examples:

In-and-Out Privileges Denied

Life-Giver

Secretary-General

Statute-Giver

JEHOVAH

Defining Substitute Terms

115 A substitute term in this section is a noun that refers to Jehovah. The term is capped. It is usually preceded by wording that limits its application to Jehovah.
116 Even if a noun referring to Jehovah is used in a generic sense, it remains a substitute term and is capped. This usage is often indicated by the presence of an indefinite article.

Examples:

the King, Israel’s King, a King

the Repurchaser, Israel’s Repurchaser, a Repurchaser

the Shepherd of Israel, our Shepherd, a Shepherd

the Designer of the universe, a Designer

Jehovah is indeed a Great Designer.

Jehovah is an imaginative Designer.

Modifiers of Substitute Terms

Adjectives Ending in “ly” and “ful”

117 Adjectives ending in “ly” and “ful” are not capped.

Examples:

heavenly Grandfather

husbandly Protector

kindly Shepherd

merciful Judge

Coordinate Adjectives

118 Coordinate adjectives are not capped.

Examples:

Jehovah is the wise, imaginative Designer of man.

Jehovah was the unique, peerless Benefactor of ancient Israel.

Preceding a Substitute Term

119 A single modifier is normally capped if it specifically qualifies the office or function identified by the substitute term. Modifiers that refer to the qualities or attributes of the one filling the office or exercising the function are usually not capped.

Examples:

Jehovah is the Great Designer of the universe.

the Greater Abraham

the Great Potter

the Supreme Overseer

the Great Refiner

the Foremost Teacher

the Preeminent Communicator

the Incomparable Educator

our trustworthy Friend

the first Evangelizer

our loving Helper

mankind’s dependable Sustainer of life

Preceding a Term Capped in the Bible

120 A modifier is lowercased when it immediately precedes a capped term taken from the Bible.

Examples:

ever-living God

glorious Jehovah

jealous God

majestic Sovereign Lord

Superlatives

121 Superlatives are not capped.

Examples:

the greatest Designer

our finest Friend

Personal Pronouns

“One”

122 The pronoun “One” without modifiers is capped if used to designate Jehovah when “Jehovah,” “God,” “Sovereign Lord,” “Jehovah God,” “Sovereign Lord Jehovah,” or equivalent identification from the Bible does not appear in the same sentence.

Examples:

We must obey the One who created the heavens and the earth.

Jehovah is the one we must obey.

Jehovah God is the Supreme One.

Other Pronouns

123 Pronouns other than “one” that refer to Jehovah, such as “he,” “him,” “himself,” and “his,” are capped only to avoid ambiguity.

Examples:

Although a creature may forsake Jehovah God, never will He fail.

Like Jesus, true Christians desire the approval of God, and that requires complete obedience to Him.

He could learn by listening to his heavenly Father and observing His works.

JESUS

Defining Substitute Terms

124 A substitute term in this section is a noun that refers to Jesus. The term is capped. It is usually preceded by wording that limits its application to Jesus.

125 Even if a noun referring to Jesus is used in a generic sense, it remains a substitute term and is capped. This usage is often indicated by the presence of an indefinite article.

Examples:

the Ransomer

the Liberator

Jehovah’s Executioner

our Ransomer our Liberator an Executioner

a Ransomer a Liberator

Jesus was indeed a Great Teacher

Substitute Terms With “Christ”

126 Substitute terms are not coupled with the title “Christ” and the combination attached to the name Jesus. This prevents a multiplying of titles with the name.

Examples:

Not: King Christ Jesus

But: King, Christ Jesus

Or: King Jesus Christ

Not: the Lord Christ Jesus

But: the Lord, Christ Jesus

Or: the Lord Jesus Christ

Or: the Lord Christ (Romans 16:18)

Modifiers of Substitute Terms

Adjectives Ending in “ly” and “ful”

127 Adjectives ending in “ly” and “ful” are not capped.

Examples:

merciful Judge

heavenly Ruler

Coordinate Adjectives

128 Coordinate adjectives are not capped.

Examples:

the resurrected, glorified Bridegroom

diligent, joyful Master Worker

a kind, patient Teacher.

Preceding a Substitute Term

129 A single modifier is normally capped if it specifically qualifies the office or function identified by the substitute term. Modifiers that refer to the qualities or attributes of the one filling the office or exercising the function are usually not capped.

Examples:

... Jesus. This Great Teacher, Jehovah resurrected...

compassionate Redeemer

Chief Vindicator

the promised Deliverer

God’s appointed Spokesman

Greater David

the leading Sanctifier of Jehovah’s name

Greater Congregator

Permanent Heir of David

Chief Minister

Preceding a Term Capped in the Bible

130 A modifier is lowercased when it immediately precedes a capped term taken from the Bible.

Examples:

archangel Michael

beloved Son

long-awaited Messiah

unblemished Lamb

Superlatives

131 Superlatives are not capped.

Examples:

Jesus was the greatest Teacher ever to tread this earth.

Personal Pronouns

“One”

132 The pronoun “One” is capped if used in place of “Jesus,” “Christ,” and “the Christ” when one of these designations does not appear in the same sentence.

Examples:

We must earnestly strive to follow the example of the One who died for us.

Rulership over the earth has been given to the One who has the legal right.

Jesus is the one qualified for the role of Liberator.

Other Pronouns

133 Pronouns other than “one” that refer to Jesus, such as “he,” “him,” “himself,” and “his,” are capped only to avoid ambiguity.

Example:

Satan twisted the Scriptures to put pressure on Jesus, thus testing His integrity in three ways.

“O,” “OH”

134 Vocative “O” in English is always capped, but “oh” is lowercased unless it begins a sentence or stands alone.

Examples:

“Hear the word of Jehovah, O house of Israel.”

Once a person learns the truth, oh, what a completely different outlook he has!

Oh how often Jehovah’s enduring worshipers cry out for strength!

MEANINGS OF NOUNS

Common Nouns

135 The meanings of common nouns are lowercased and quoted.

Examples:

The word “bishop” comes from a Greek word meaning “overseer.”

The land was called Patagonia—from a Spanish word meaning “big feet.”

Proper Nouns

136 The meanings of proper nouns are capped and quoted.

Examples:

Beth-arabah Priscilla Shqiperia

“House of the Desert Plain”

“Little Old Woman” “The Land of the Eagle”

There may be exceptions, for obvious reasons.

Examples:

So the designation “Shinto,” meaning “the way of the gods,” sprang up.

Ahura Mazda, meaning “a wise god,” ordained these laws.

PERSONAL TITLES

Titles of Offices

British Commonwealth Text

137 Exceptions to the normal rules governing the capitalization of titles may occur in text submitted by Commonwealth branches and in copy dealing with Commonwealth countries.

Examples:

Archbishop of Canterbury

Crown [denoting head of state]

Duke of Windsor

King [without personal name]

Palace of Westminster

Prince [without personal name]

Prince of Wales

Queen [without personal name]

Queen Mother

“Cardinal” in Roman Catholic Usage

138 The Roman Catholic Church title “cardinal” is lowercased when it precedes the full name of the person so identified. When it appears with only the last name of the person, the title is capped. When it appears within the full name of the person, preceding his last name, the title is capped.

Examples:

cardinal John Henry Newman

Cardinal Newman

John Henry Cardinal Newman

Generic Use

139 Do not cap a title that is used as a general term of classification.

Examples:

The Assyrian king ruled harshly.

U. S. presidents are in office for a maximum of eight years.

Personal Name Attached

140 Cap titles when they precede proper names. Titles that follow proper names or are used alone are not capped. When the plural of a title precedes two or more proper names, the title is capped.

Examples:

The administration of former President Nixon was marked by scandal.

When Bill Clinton was elected president, Prime Minister John Major was in office.

It was not until the reigns of Kings David and Solomon that the entire Promised Land came under Israelite control.

The bishop of Bordeaux said that the Catholic Church does not represent a beacon of light and hope.

Balaam told Moabite King Balak that God would curse Israel if the people could be enticed to commit fornication.

Titles as Synonyms in Direct Address

141 Cap titles used in direct address as synonyms of proper names.

Examples:

“Yes, Miss.”

“Come this way, Doctor.”

“Oh, no, Sir.”

“How are you, Dad?”

PHOTO CREDITS

142 Photo credits should appear exactly as in copy supplied by Image Services.

POETRY

Quotes From the Bible

143 Quotations of Bible poetry are usually treated as prose. In such prose form, the caps that would not normally be used in prose should be eliminated. This applies to all translations of the Bible.—See also paragraph 496.

Examples:

Not: “I will exalt you, O my God the King, And I will bless ...”—Psalm 145:1.

But: “I will exalt you, O my God the King, and...”

Not: “Happy are the ones faultless in their way, The ...”—Psalm 119:1.

But: “Happy are the ones faultless in their way, the ...”

144 Poetry inserted as text using the MEPS function Get Verse should be carefully checked in regard to poetic capping. Text inserted using Get Verse may also require adjustment of the words “you” and “your” to remove any small-cap format.

Examples:

Not: “Please, may the badness of wicked ones come to an end, And may you establish the righteous one; And God as righteous is testing out heart and kidneys.”—Psalm 7:9.

But: “Please, may the badness of wicked ones come to an end, and may you establish the righteous one; and God as righteous is testing out heart and kidneys.”—Psalm 7:9.

Not: “YOU must not add to the word that I am commanding YOU, neither must YOU take away from it, so as to keep the commandments of Jehovah YOUR God that I am commanding YOU.”—Deuteronomy 4:2.

But: “You must not add to the word that I am commanding you, neither must you take away from it, so as to keep the commandments of Jehovah your God that I am commanding you.”—Deuteronomy 4:2.

Quotes Not From the Bible

145 When quotations of material in poetic format are incor- porated in text, a diagonal (/) indicates the end of the poem’s line or the poetic break of the song. In such a case, if the first word of the line is capped in the poem, it is also capped in the quote.

Example:

“When lame ones leap just like the hart,/When loved ones never have to part—/Such blessed times you’ll realize,/If you keep your eyes on the prize.”

SEASONS AND WEATHER

146 An effort is made to avoid the use of seasonal terms, such as “fall” and “spring,” to mark the time when an event took place. Such terms may confuse readers, since seasons differ in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Furthermore, there are no distinct four seasons in equatorial areas, but the year may be divided into a wet season and a dry season. When the season has relevance, it may also be mentioned.

Examples:

January 17 turned out to be a cold winter day in Norway.

January 17 turned out to be a hot summer day in Sydney.

Papua New Guinea has no recognizable summer or winter, only wet and dry periods. These depend on the two prevailing seasons—the northwest monsoon, occurring from December to May, and the southeast trade winds, from May to December.

147 When storms are given personal names, cap both the storm designation and the personal name.

Examples:

When Hurricane Andrew hit the coast of Florida, it caused a lot of damage.

A close watch is being kept on Tropical Storm David.

SIGNS

148 Cap the wording of signs in the same way that titles are capped, and use quotes.—See also paragraphs 150-8.

Examples:

Go to the door marked “Exit.” (But: Go to the exit door.)

The sign said “Do Not Enter.”

The sign he carried read “Religion Is a Snare and a Racket.”

SPECIAL WATCH TOWER CAPITALIZATION

149 Both “Terms in Watch Tower Publications” and “Watch Tower Terminology” list terms that require special capitalization and provide permanent overrides of Webster’s that have been established to accommodate unique needs.—See pages 73-90, 237-40.

TERMS IN WATCH TOWER PUBLICATIONS

Term	Capping Rule
Aborigine, Aboriginal	Cap when referring to the Aboriginals of Australia
active force	Lowercase
Advance Medical Directive/Release, Medical Directive	Cap; but lowercase "medical document"
Adversary	Cap when used as a substitute term to refer to the Devil; otherwise lowercase.—See also paragraph 75.
Almighty	Cap when used alone as a substitute term, as “the Almighty,” and if not preceded by a definite article, as “Almighty God” and “God Almighty.” Lowercase if preceded by an article, as “the almighty God,” “an almighty God”
Alpha and Omega	Cap when used in Scriptural sense; lowercase when referring to the Greek alphabet
Anointed	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Christ
appeal committee	Lowercase
ark	Lowercase “ark of the covenant.” With reference to it, cap “the Ark” if the expression stands alone.—See also paragraph 72.
ark, Noah’s	Lowercase
Assembly Hall	Cap
Assembly Hall Fund	Cap
Atonement Day	Cap.—See also paragraphs 73-4.
Avenger	Cap as a substitute term referring to Jesus
Baptizer	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to John
Bethel Entrants’ School	Cap
Bethel family	Lowercase family
Bethel Home	Cap; but “Bethel homes”
Bethelite	Cap
Bible, Biblical	Cap; but “unbiblical” (Webster’s)
Bible books	“First Kings” at beginning of sentence, “1 Kings” in text; but, “first book of Kings”; “Paul’s first letter to Corinthians.” May spell out book number in text of talk manuscripts
Bible Students	Cap when used as an organizational designation
Bible students	Lowercase when referring to those in Bible study program
Branch Committee	Cap; but lowercase committee members (“Branch Committee coordinator”)
[country] branch	Lowercase “branch” with country name
branch office	Lowercase
bride	Lowercase
Bridegroom	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring

Term	Capping Rule
	to Jesus
British Library, the	Not, The British Library
British Museum, the	Not, The British Museum
canon	Lowercase
Chief Agent	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus
church (of Christ)	Lowercase
Church	Lowercase word if reference is made to the building unless it is part of the name of the religious group

Examples:

She goes to church every Sunday.

There is a Catholic church on Cranberry Street.

But: She regularly plays bingo at the Church of the Resurrection.

Lowercase word when it refers to the organization but stands alone

Example:

The church has perpetuated false teachings through the centuries.

[Context shows which church.]

Term	Capping Rule
Church	Cap word if reference is made to the organization and the word is preceded or followed by name of denomination. Cap word if reference is to the religious part of human society as a whole

Example:

The Catholic Church has perpetuated many false teachings through the centuries.

The Anglican Church is also known as the Church of England.

Irish Catholics had to choose between Church and State.

Term	Capping Rule
circuit assembly	Lowercase
circuit overseer	Lowercase
Common Era	Cap
communism, communist	Follow Webster’s, which basically caps according to context
Congregation	Cap only when part of the name of a modern-day congregation

Example:

Brooklyn Heights Congregation

Term	Capping Rule
Congregation Book	Cap; but lowercase “book study” Study
Congregation Book	Cap; but lowercase “book study
Study conductor	conductor”

Term	Capping Rule
Congregation Service Committee	Cap; but lowercase “service committee”
Congregation’s Publisher Record	Cap
Constitution	Cap when referring to the constitution of a specific country; but, “constitutional”
Convention Committee	Cap (also, District Convention Committee)
country committee	Lowercase
covenant	Lowercase
Day of Atonement	Cap.—See also paragraphs 73-4.
Day of Judgment	Cap.—See also paragraphs 73-4.
Deluge	Follow “Flood” rule.—See also paragraphs 72,75-8.
Department	Cap when used as part of the name of a department

Examples:

Art Department

Writing Department

Cap when reference is to governmental agencies.—See also paragraphs 104-5.

Examples:

Department of Justice

Department of the Interior

Term	Capping Rule
district convention	Cap only when part of the name.—See also “Convention Committee,” page 76.

Examples:

“Faith in God’s Word” District Convention

“Faith in God’s Word” Convention

Term	Capping Rule
district overseer	Lowercase
Editions	Cap when used with the publication name

Example:

The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, 1984 Edition, shows 39,500,000 copies printed in all editions.

Term	Capping Rule
Epistle	Cap when referring to the letters of the Christian Greek Scriptures; lowercase in other instances
Executioner	Cap when referring to Jesus
Exodus	Cap when referring to the Exodus from Egypt
Fatherhood	Lowercase in reference to Jehovah and Jesus
Fax	Lowercase
Feast	Follow “Festival” rule

Term	Capping Rule
Festival	Cap when referring to specific festivals and when used as part of the name, such as Festival of Ingathering, Festival of Pentecost; lowercase when used in a general sense
Firstborn	Lowercase when used in a general sense; cap when used as a noun in referring to Jesus
Flight (number)	Cap [airline flight]
Flood	Cap with reference to the Flood of Noah’s day; pre-Flood.—See also paragraphs 72, 75-8.
Forms	The name of a form is capped when it is immediately followed by one of the following words: “slip,” “blank,” “card,” or “form”

Examples:

The Society provides three copies of the Literature Inventory form in the annual forms shipments to congregations.

A Congregation’s Publisher Record card is kept on file for each publisher.

The name of the form is capped when it is immediately followed by the form number

Example:

Use the Handbill Request in order to obtain handbills.

The name of the form is capped when it is used as a proper noun even though not followed by the word “form” or the form number

Examples:

The Monthly Congregation Accounts Report is used to summarize the state of the funds of the congregation.

A Literature Request Form is sent in on a monthly schedule.

The name of a form is lowercase when reference is to the act of using the form

Example:

Publishers are encouraged to keep an accurate house-to-house record of interest found in field service.

The name of the form is lowercase when in the plural

Example:

Each week, the literature servant should turn over the literature check sheets to the accounts servant.

Term	Capping Rule
garden of Eden	Lowercase “garden”
garden of Gethsemane	Lowercase “garden”
Term	Capping Rule
Gehenna	Cap
Gentile	Cap
Gentile Times	Cap

Gestapo	Cap when referring to the German organization
Gilead Extension School	Cap
Gilead School	Cap; but lowercase “school” when it is used alone
Godless	Lowercase
Godlike	Lowercase
Godly	Lowercase
Godship	Lowercase when reference is to false gods; cap when referring to Jehovah’s rulership
Golden Rule	Cap
Gospel	Cap when referring to the four Gospels in the Bible; lowercase in other instances
Governing Body	Cap with reference to modern-day organization of Jehovah’s Witnesses; lowercase when referring to that of the first-century congregation. Names of Governing Body committees are capped

Examples:

Publishing Committee Service Committee Teaching Committee Writing Committee

Term	Capping Rule
Government	Lowercase
Grandfather	Cap when referring to Jehovah
great crowd	Lowercase
Hades	Cap
Heavenly	Lowercase
heil Hitler	Lowercase “heil” when used as a verb; cap when used as a greeting
high priest	Lowercase when used in a general sense; cap when referring to Jesus or when used as a title with a personal name
Holy	Cap when referring to compartment in temple

Substitute terms:

Holy Bible

Divine Library, Sacred Scriptures, Sacred Word

Holy Bible | Divine Library, Sacred Scriptures, Sacred Word

Term	Capping Rule
Holy of Holies	Cap when referring to compartment in the tabernacle or the temple
Holy Place	Cap when referring to compartment in the tabernacle or the temple
holy spirit	Lowercase
Hospital Information	Cap Services (HIS)
Hospital Liaison Committee (HLC)	Cap
International Program	Cap [construction organization]

Term	Capping Rule
international servants	Lowercase [long-term volunteers, under special order vow]
international volunteers	Lowercase [short-term volunteers, not under special order vow]
Islam, Islamic	Cap
Jehovah’s Witnesses	Cap in all cases when referring to Jehovah’s Witnesses of today; lowercase the word “witnesses” when it does not refer to the modern-day organization. Do not use the expression “Jehovah’s Christian Witnesses”. Do not use the expression “a Jehovah’s Witness.” Instead, use “one of Jehovah’s Witnesses” or a comparable expression

Examples:

Jehovah’s faithful Witnesses

the faithful Witnesses of Jehovah

Witnesses of Jehovah

Christian Witnesses of Jehovah

Jehovah’s modern-day Witnesses

Lowercase when reference is being made to Jehovah’s witnesses of past ages

Term	Capping Rule
Jehovah’s Witnesses	Cap (secondary form: “Assembly Hall of Jehovah’s Witnesses”) Assembly Hall
Judge	Cap with personal name of a Bible judge
Judges	Cap, as in “the period of the Judges”
Judgment Day	Cap.—See also paragraphs 73-4.
judicial committee	Lowercase
King	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah or to Jesus
Kingdom	Cap when referring to the rulership of Jehovah or of Jesus Christ.—See also paragraphs 72, 75-8. Lowercase when used in a general sense or when referring to Jesus’ rulership over the anointed congregation.—Col. 1:1.
Kingdom Hall	Cap
Kingdom Hall Fund	Cap
Kingdom Ministry School	Cap
kingdom of Israel	Lowercase “kingdom”
Kingdom rule	Lowercase “rule” when reference is to Messianic Kingdom
Kingly	Lowercase
Kingship	Lowercase
Koran	Cap
Lamb	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus

Term	Capping Rule
Law	Cap when referring to the Law of Moses
Law	Lowercase when referring to an individual law from Law of Moses
Law covenant	Cap “Law”
Life-Giver	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah
Lord’s Evening Meal	Cap
Lord’s Prayer	Cap
Master	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus
Mediator	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus
Medical Directive, Advance Medical Directive/Release	Cap; but lowercase “medical document”
meetings	Cap references to the five congregation meetings: Congregation Book Study, Public Meeting, Service Meeting, Theocratic Ministry School, and Watchtower Study
Memorial	Cap when referring to Lord’s Evening Meal
Messiah	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus
millennial hope	Lowercase
Millennial Reign	Cap
Millennial Rule	Cap
Millennium	Cap when referring to Thousand Year Reign
Ministerial Training School	Cap
“minor” prophets	Lowercase (quoted because we do not view them as minor in importance)
model prayer	Lowercase
Mosaic Law	Cap
Most Holy	Cap when referring to compartment in temple
Movies	Cap designation “X rated,” “R rated,” “X-rated movies” For television ratings, follow the same rule

Examples:

TV-M rated

TV-G rated

TV-14 rated

Term	Capping Rule
new covenant	Lowercase
new heavens	Lowercase
new system	Lowercase [Do not use “New Order.”]
new world	Lowercase unless referring to the Americas
Nobel Prize winner	Lowercase “winner”; if full name of prize is given, cap main words

Example:

Nobel Prize for Economics

Term	Capping Rule
northern kingdom	Lowercase “northern kingdom” of Israel
paradisaic	Lowercase
Paradise	Cap when used as a proper noun in referring to the earth under Kingdom rule or to the original Paradise; lowercase when used as a common noun. Adjective usage follows the style of the noun usage.—See also paragraphs 72, 75-8. Lowercase when referring to spiritual paradise
Passover	Cap
Passover Day	Cap
Patient Visitation Group	Cap
Pentecost	Cap; but, day of Pentecost.—See also paragraphs 73-4.
Pioneer Service School	Cap; lowercase “pioneer school”
pope, the pope	Lowercase; but cap when name appears with title, as “Pope Paul”
presiding overseer	Lowercase
Promised Land	Cap
promised Seed	Lowercase “promised”
pronouns	Lowercase when referring to Jehovah or Jesus Christ unless ambiguity is involved.—See also paragraphs 122-3,132-3.
Psalm	Lowercase when the word “psalm” is used to refer to a single Bible psalm if no number follows the word. Cap when a number follows the word or when an ordinal precedes. Lowercase when preceded by two or more ordinal citations

Examples:

A psalm of David

19th Psalm

See Psalm 2

the 85th and 86th psalms

Psalms 9 and 10

Cap when referring to the name of the book in a series of chapter and verse citations separated by semicolons

Example:

Psalm 1:5; 16:3; 142:6

Term	Capping Rule
Psalmist	Lowercase
Public Meeting	Cap; but lowercase “public talk”

Term	Capping Rule
Ransomer	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah or to Jesus
Redeemer	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah or to Jesus
Regional Building Committee	Cap; but lowercase “regional committee”
Repurchaser	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah
Sabbath	Cap when used as a proper noun; lowercase when used as a common noun.—See also paragraphs 72-8.
Sabbath day	Cap “Sabbath” when it is a proper noun; lowercase when a common noun.—See also paragraphs 72-8.
Satanic	Lowercase
Satanism	Cap
Savior	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah or to Jesus
Scriptural	Cap
Scripture	Cap when reference is made to collection of inspired writings. Lowercase when reference is made to a particular verse or group of verses
Secretary	Lowercase when referring to congregation secretary
Seed	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus
Sermon on the Mount	Cap; but lowercase “sermon” when appearing alone
Serpent	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to the Devil
Service Meeting	Cap
service overseer	Lowercase
Sheol	Cap
Shepherd	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah or to Jesus
Society	Cap when referring to Watch Tower Society and Watchtower Society
Society Kingdom Hall Fund	Cap
Son	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus
Sovereign	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jehovah
Spanish flu	Lowercase word “flu”
special assembly day	Lowercase
spiritual paradise	Lowercase
Statute-Giver	Cap when referring to Jehovah
Tabernacle	Lowercase
Tablet	Lowercase
Tartarus	Cap

Term	Capping Rule
Ten Commandments	Cap; also, Ten Words
Ten Plagues	Cap
Tetragrammaton	Cap
the British Library	Lowercase “the”
the British Museum	Lowercase “the”
Theocracy	Follow “Kingdom” rule
Theocratic Ministry School	Cap; but lowercase “school” when it stands alone
Theocratic Ministry overseer	Cap; but lowercase School “school overseer”
Theocratic Ministry School Schedule	Cap
The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah’s Kingdom	No Dash
Thousand Year Reign	Follow “Kingdom” rule.—See also paragraph 75.
Times of the Gentiles	Cap
Tower of Babel	Cap
Trinity	Cap when referring to Christendom’s
Tropic of Cancer	Cap. Permanent override of Webster’s.—See also Watch Tower Terminology, pages 237-40.
Tropic of Capricorn	Cap. Permanent override of Webster’s.—See also Watch Tower Terminology, pages 237-40.
Watchtower Educational Center	Cap; but lowercase “the educational center”
Watchtower Farms	Cap [Use with plural verb.]
Watchtower Study	Cap
Watchtower Study conductor	Cap; but lowercase “study conductor”
Witness(es)	Cap when used with regard to the modern-day organization and its members, including cases in which the term stands alone and refers to one or more of Jehovah’s modern-day Witnesses

Examples:

Jehovah’s Witnesses

Christian Witnesses of Jehovah

Jehovah’s modern-day Witnesses

The Witnesses preach globally.

When the Witness called,...

Term	Capping Rule
Word	Cap when used alone as a substitute term referring to Jesus Christ or to the Bible
world power	Lowercase when referring to world powers generically or when numbering world powers

Example:

Rome was the sixth world power of Bible history.

Term	Capping Rule
World Power	Cap when referring to a specific nation

Example:

Babylonian World Power

Term	Capping Rule
World War I	Cap; but lowercase first world war
World War II	Cap; but lowercase second world war
zone overseer	Lowercase

TITLES, HEADLINES, AND SUBHEADS

Articles, Conjunctions, and Prepositions

150 Articles, conjunctions, and prepositions of three letters or less are lowercase unless they are the first or the last word or they follow a dash.

Examples:

A Day in the Life of a Missionary

Success—At All Costs?

Whose Side Is God On?

Compound Prepositions

151 The individual elements of compound prepositions are capped according to the regular capitalization rules outlined in this section.

Examples:

Apart From as to by Means of

by Way of on Account of Instead of

out of Outside of

Capitalization and Artistic Layout

152 When a title is arranged for artistic effect, certain words may not follow regular capitalization rules. If such a title is later quoted, cap according to regular capitalization rules. The table of contents follows regular capitalization rules.

Examples:

Family Happiness book

Title page: The Secret of FAMILY HAPPINESS

Quote: The Secret of Family Happiness

Reasoning book:

Title Page: Reasoning from the Scriptures

Quote: Reasoning From the Scriptures

First and Last Word

153 Cap first and last word, no matter what part of speech.

Examples:

A Field Producing Wheat and Weeds

Youth—What Are You Looking For?

In Search of a Father

What’s This World Coming To?

Following a Dash

154 Cap the first word after a dash, no matter what part of speech. If a dash is implied (on covers and in art), cap as after a printed dash.

Examples:

Jehovah—A Strong Tower

Armageddon—And After

Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs

155 Cap all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, regardless of length.

Examples:

Can I Do Any Better Than My Parents?

Why Do I Get So Depressed?

Why Say No to Drugs?

Second Element of Hyphenated Words

156 In titles with hyphenated words, follow regular capital- ization style. If a hyphenated word begins with a prefix, the second element is not capped unless it is a proper noun.—See also paragraph 114.

Examples:

The Kingdom—A God-Given Hope

“Peoples Must Stream” to Life-Giving Waters

Why the Cost-of-Living Crisis?

Anti-intellectualism a Growing Trend

Clergy Reveal Their Anti-Christian Spirit

157 The second element of a hyphenated proper noun is not capped because the elements joined by hyphens form but one name.

Examples:

Bath-sheba

Baal-perazim

Exception: Jehovah-Shammah (Ezek. 48:35, ftn.)

Words of Four or More Letters

158 Cap all words of four or more letters, no matter what part of speech.—See also paragraph 152.

Examples:

Are You Serving With Jehovah’s Organization?

Questions From Readers

TRADEMARKS

159 A trademark is a name protected by law. Thus, many firms insist on capitalization and also on certain phrasing of the trademark plus a generic term. Check Webster’s and other reference works for usage.

Common Noun Identified by a Trademark

160 When a trademark is used, do not cap an associated common noun that is identified by the trademark.

Examples:

Campbell’s soup Eagle pencil

Doublemint gum Ford station wagon

WITHIN SENTENCES

Following a Colon

161 The first word after a colon, or a comma that takes the place of a colon, should be capped when it begins a complete sentence, lowercase when it begins a partial sentence.

Examples:

The breastpiece was securely mounted on the ephod in this way: Two wreathed chains of pure gold were attached to two gold rings at opposite corners of the upper part of the breastpiece.

The question is asked, Why would Jesus entrust the care of his mother to the apostle John instead of to his fleshly brothers?

The distribution of the land among the tribes was governed by two factors: the casting of the lot and the size of the tribe.

Parentheses

162 A sentence enclosed in parentheses and embedded within another sentence need not begin with a cap or end with a period.

Examples:

“... standing where it ought not (let the reader use discernment), then let...”

A third Hebrew word that is applied solely to birds of prey is understood to mean “screamer” (compare the use of the verb at 1 Samuel 25:14), and it fittingly describes the shrieks of many carnivorous birds.

Partial Sentences

Following an Exclamation Point or a Question Mark

163 The word following an exclamation point or a question mark is not always construed as beginning a new sentence requiring a cap. If the matter following is closely connected with what precedes, completing the thought or making the meaning clearer, no cap is necessary.

Examples:

“They try to heal the breakdown of my people lightly, saying, ‘There is peace! There is peace!’ when there is no peace.”

In the heady days when Nazism was rising to power in Europe, the cry “Heil Hitler!” was really a shout of adoration.

Study Questions

164 The use of (a) and (b) in study questions does not necessarily require a cap as for a new sentence.

Cap unnecessary:

When attending meetings of Jehovah’s Witnesses, what may you observe regarding (a) money collections? (b) the meetings themselves? (c) the attitude of the people attending?

Cap necessary:

(a) Why is hell not a place where people suffer? (b) Was Jesus ever in hell?

Questions

165 The first word of a direct question should be capped.

Examples:

In analyzing his material, a good writer will always ask himself the question, Is the meaning clear?

We may ask, How can it best be understood?

Quotes

Complete

166 A quotation that is complete in itself and that can be introduced by such words as “said,” “asked,” “replied,” and “commented” should begin with a capital letter. The same rule applies to material that is single quoted.—See also paragraphs 459, 505.

Examples:

Direct quotation:	Jesus said: “This good news of the kingdom will be preached in all the inhabited earth.”
Interrupted quote:	“This good news of the kingdom,” Jesus said, “will be preached in all the inhabited earth.”

Incomplete

167 Quotes that are not complete in themselves begin with a lowercase letter unless the first word is a proper noun.

Examples:

Quoted fragments:	The “good news of the kingdom” is being preached earth wide.	The Millennium begins when “New Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God,” ...
Indirect quote:	Jesus said that “this good news of the kingdom will be preached in all the inhabited earth.”

Part of Text

168 When a quotation, either run into or set off from the text, is used as a syntactic part of the text, the quote begins with a lowercase letter unless the quote itself begins with a proper noun.

Examples:

As Jesus said, “there is more happiness in giving than there is in receiving.”

The disciple James stated that “friendship with the world is enmity with God,” and the apostle John said that “the whole world is lying in the power of the wicked one.”—James 4:4; 1 John 5:19.

Jesus instructed his disciples to pay back “Caesar’s things to Caesar, but God’s things to God.”—Matthew 22:21.

Rules and Sayings

169 The first word in a rule or a saying should be capped, and the expression should be in quotes.—See also paragraph 504.

Examples:

Write up cases and incidents from your own experience that illustrate the truth of these sayings: “Haste makes waste”; “A stitch in time saves nine.”

Some religions teach this, “Once saved, always saved.”

The Words “Yes” and “No”

170 The words “yes” and “no” are not usually capped when they appear within a sentence. They are capped only when emphasis is on the directness of the answer.

Examples:

When asked whether he would give the talk, he said yes.

A Christian’s no must always mean no.

He emphatically answered, “No!”

Topics Considered

Commas

Purpose of the Comma

Adverbial Clauses

Introduced by “Because” or “Since”

Introduced by “So That”

Introduced by “Unless” and “Except”

Nonrestrictive Adverbial Clause

Preventing Misreading of First Clause

Restrictive Adverbial Clause

Internal Adverbial Clause

Preceding the Main Clause

Applying to Two Independent Clauses

Introduced by “As,” “Since,” or “While”

To Ensure Correct Reading

Adverbial Phrases

Alternative “Or,” Appositional “Or”

Alternative “Or”

Appositional “Or”

Antithetical Elements

With “Not... But”

Appositives Distinguished From Series Items

Nonrestrictive Appositives

Restrictive Appositives

Compound Predicates

Compound Sentences

Omission of a Common Verb

Separating Coordinate Clauses

Introduced by “For”

Introduced by “So,” “Then,” or “Yet”

Joined by “But”

No coordinating Conjunction Used

Short, Closely Connected Coordinate Clauses

Verbs in the Imperative Mood

Conjunctions

Consecutive Proper Nouns

Direct Address

Ellipsis Points

Em Dash in Place of a Comma

Abrupt Break or Afterthought

Elements Having Internal Commas

Emphasis

Emphasizing Single Words

Emphatic Second Independent Clauses

Repetition and Restatement

Interpolations

Transitional Words Versus Adverbs

Independent Comments

Introductory “So”

Introductory “Thus”

Transitional Expressions

Multiple Adjectives Preceding a Noun

Adjective and Noun Forming a Unit

Adjective Modifying a Word in a Series

Independent Adjectives

Numbers

Day, Month, and Year Given

Only Month and Year Given

Only name of Day Given With Year

Dimensions, Weights, and Measures

Figures of Four Digits or More

Unrelated Figures

When Commas Are Not Used in Figures

“O,”“Oh”

Parenthetical Expressions

Elements Common to More than One Phrase

Absolute Phrase

Correlative Phrase

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers

Nonrestrictive

Restrictive

“Such As” and “Such ... as”

Nonessential Element Following a Conjunction

Construction Normally Avoided

Series Elements Having Closing Punctuation

“That,” “Which”

“Of Which” and Similar Forms Using “Which”

“That” With Introductory Clause

“Too”

Wrong Use of Commas

After Last Item of a Series

Around Restrictive Words Within a Sentence

Before an Indirect Quotation

Before Restrictive Element at End of Sentence

Before Second Element of a Correlative Conjunction

Between Bible Book Name and Chapter in Text

Between Independent Clauses

Not Joined by a Conjunction

In Place of a Conjunction

Separation of Verb and Object

PURPOSE OF THE COMMA

171 Commas are used to make the meaning of a sentence clear. The comma has two primary functions. It sets off nonessential expressions, and it separates elements within a sentence. Keep in mind at all times that the purpose of the comma is to prevent misreading.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Following the Main Clause

172 Punctuation of an adverbial clause following the main clause depends on the nature of the adverbial clause.

Introduced by “Because”

173 Adverbial clauses introduced by “because” are usually restrictive.

Examples:

The Bible is accurate because it is inspired by God.

The preaching work always achieves its intended purpose because it is under Kingdom control.

A faithful Christian’s service is always acceptable, because he is doing God’s will.

Introduced by “Before,” “When,” “While,” “As,” or “Since”

174 Do not use a comma before an internal adverbial clause introduced by “before,” “when,” “while,” “as,” or “since” that restricts the time of the action of the principal verb.

Examples:

We should review the current magazines before we go in field service.

Jehovah’s promise began to be fulfilled in 539 B.C.E. when Babylon was conquered and freedom was offered to the Israelite exiles.

Endurance becomes more significant as the last days extend themselves beyond what many had anticipated.

House-to-house preaching has been the hallmark of Jehovah’s Witnesses since that method was organized in the congregations in 1922.

175 When an internal adverbial clause introduced by “as,” “while,” or “since” does not restrict the verb but expresses cause or condition, use a comma before it.

Examples:

Preaching to Muslims and Hindus is a real challenge, as few respond to the Kingdom message.

Jehovah’s people are concerned with divine interests, while the world is concerned with human interests.

The Society urges as many as possible to pioneer, since the time left for giving a witness is short.

Introduced by “So That”

176 Use a comma before an internal adverbial clause of result introduced by “so that” but not before a clause of purpose introduced in that way.

Note: Meaning is at times changed by the use of or the omission of a comma.

Examples:

Convention arrangements have been simplified, so that fewer brothers need to work during the sessions.

[Comma indicates clause of result: Fewer workers are needed as a result of the simplification.]

Convention arrangements have been simplified so that fewer brothers need to work during the sessions.

[Clause of purpose: Simplification is intended to minimize the number of workers needed.]

Introduced by “Unless” and “Except”

177 Adverbial clauses introduced by “unless” and “except” are usually restrictive.

Examples:

A person cannot enter Bethel unless he shows his ID.

Bethel is open for tours every Saturday except when it is spring-cleaning day.

I am going out in service on Saturday, unless, of course, my guests arrive early.

Nonrestrictive Adverbial Clause

178 A nonrestrictive adverbial clause following the main clause should be preceded by a comma.

Clauses introduced by “though” or “although” are always nonrestrictive.

Examples:

As these ‘former things pass away,’ God-fearing humans will be ushered into the glorious new world, where God “will wipe out every tear from their eyes.”—Revelation 21:3-5.

The house-to-house work is the primary preaching method, while other methods are used to speak to people wherever they may be found.

Preventing Misreading of First Clause

179 Be careful not to omit a comma that is needed to prevent the subject of the second clause from being read, even momentarily, as a part of the object of the first clause.

Examples:

While we watched, the baptism candidates filed out of the auditorium.

Because studies canceled, return visits were down that month.

Restrictive Adverbial Clause

180 A restrictive adverbial clause following the main clause, which limits the action of the main verb to a particular time, manner, or circumstance, should not be preceded by a comma. Clauses introduced by “if ” are always restrictive.

Examples:

We can reach the goal if everyone sticks to the schedule.

Our faith is tested when people disregard our preaching.

Internal Adverbial Clause

181 A comma is not used before an internal adverbial clause that precedes the main clause on which it depends unless the adverbial clause is clearly nonrestrictive and can be read as a parenthetical element.

Examples:

Not: The Society has several small washing machines, and, after the workday ends, we may use them.

But: The Society has several small washing machines, and after the workday ends, we may use them.

Not: This means that, if they leave for the convention by eight o’clock, they will arrive before nine.

But: This means that if they leave for the convention by eight o’clock, they will arrive before nine.

Not: Evening witnessing is encouraged because particularly when it is cold, more people are found at home.

But: Evening witnessing is encouraged because, particularly when it is cold, more people are found at home.

Preceding the Main Clause

182 Use a comma after an adverbial clause preceding its principal clause unless the adverbial clause is short (usually three words or less) and no misreading would result from the omission.

Examples:

After some years had passed, the ban was suddenly lifted.

When we returned we were shocked to see that the car was gone.

Applying to Two Independent Clauses

183 When an introductory adverbial clause applies to two independent clauses that it introduces, no comma separates the independent clauses. This prevents the misreading of the adverbial clause as applying only to the first independent clause.—See also paragraph 199.

Examples:

Not: Before you conduct a home Bible study, carefully read all the printed material to be covered, and look up all the unquoted scriptures.

But: Before you conduct a home Bible study, carefully read all the printed material to be covered

and look up all the unquoted scriptures.

Introduced by “As,” “Since,” or “While”

184 A comma is always used after an adverbial clause introduced by “as,” “since,” or “while” when the conjunction expresses cause or condition. Without the comma these conjunctions express time only.

Examples:

As we said, we cannot accept the offer on those terms.

Since they visited, we gave them a tour.

While he walked he was happily whistling a Kingdom melody.

As we approached we could see some of the Society’s buildings.

To Ensure Correct Reading

185 A comma may be necessary after an introductory adverbial clause to ensure correct reading.

Examples:

When he entered, the elevator fell.

As he boarded, the train doors closed behind him.

ADVERBIAL PHRASES

186 Adverbial phrases within a compound sentence should be treated separately within each independent clause and punctuated accordingly.

Examples:

The Bethel family has grown in recent years, and though housed largely in the Bethel complex, many in the family are scattered about in different buildings in Brooklyn Heights.

Many new congregations are formed in Mexico each year, and regardless of size, all of them need qualified men to take the lead.

ALTERNATIVE “OR,” APPOSITIONAL “OR”

187 Alternative “or” and appositional “or” should be carefully distinguished so that no commas necessary to clearness of meaning are omitted.

Alternative “Or”

188 Words or phrases in text introduced by an alternative “or” are not set off by commas.

Examples:

The words a person most frequently hears in a New York department store may well be “Cash or charge?” rather than “Thank you” or “Please.”

Under the state guidelines, a pen or a pencil may be used to fill out the form.

189 If the alternative words or phrases appear in parentheses, no comma is used within the parentheses.

Examples:

I will be expecting you Monday (or Thursday) if that is convenient for you.

You can visit the clinic at the Bethel infirmary right after breakfast (or right after lunch).

Appositional “Or”

190 Words or phrases in apposition in text are often introduced by “or.” Such words should be set off with commas.

Examples:

Underground passages, or tunnels, connect the buildings of the Bethel Home complex.

The “weeds” in Matthew chapter 13 represent false, or imitation, Christians.

191 If the words or phrases in apposition appear within parentheses, the comma follows the “or.”

Examples:

Similarly, aquaphobia (or, hydrophobia), a fear of water, may stem from an experience of nearly drowning.

The good news about Jesus Christ is contained primarily in the four Gospels (or, Evangels).

ALTERNATIVE “OR,” APPOSITIONAL “OR”

Following the Main Clause

192 Set off an antithetical element following the main clause on which it depends.

Examples:

Jesus sought to attract honesthearted people to the Kingdom, not to drive them away.

Subjection to secular authority is Scripturally shown by conscientious obedience to law, not by hypocritical observance of patriotic ceremonies while violating the law.

With “Not... But”

193 An antithetical phrase that is introduced by “not” and followed by “but” is usually set off by commas. Short phrases do not require commas. This construction should not be confused with construction that uses the correlative conjunction “not only... but also.”—See also paragraph 243.

Examples:

The preaching work is accomplished, not by sensational television extravaganzas, but by ordinary people who take the message of the Kingdom to individual listeners.

Driven by the fear of man, Peter denied Jesus not once but three times.

APPOSITIVES

Appositives Distinguished From Series Items

194 Care should be exercised to distinguish appositives from elements in a series.—See also paragraph

215.

Examples:

Not: During the latter part of the week, Brother Smith, the circuit overseer, and Brother Jones called on inactive publishers.

But: During the latter part of the week, Brother Jones and Brother Smith, the circuit overseer, called on inactive publishers.

Nonrestrictive Appositives

195 Use commas with nonrestrictive appositives.

Examples:

The first man on earth, Adam, sinned in the garden of Eden.

[There was only one first man on earth.]

Abraham’s wife, Sarah, is an excellent role model for Christian women.

[Comma is used for monogamous relationships.]

Restrictive Appositives

196 Use no commas with restrictive appositives.

Examples:

Not: The prophet, Daniel, described the succession of Gentile world powers.

[Daniel was not the only prophet.]

But: The prophet Daniel described the succession of Gentile world powers.

[There were many prophets; the absence of commas restricts this prophecy to Daniel.]

Jacob loved his wife Rachel more than he did Leah.

[No comma with polygamous relationships.]

COMPOUND PREDICATES

197 In a compound predicate, the two predicates should not be separated by punctuation.—See also paragraph 301.

Examples:

He attended the entire convention and thereafter started coming to the meetings.

The Society has expanded the preaching to over 230 lands and has established branch offices in many of those countries.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

Omission of a Common Verb

198 When two or more coordinate clauses require the same verb, omission of the verb in the clauses following the first should be marked by a comma unless the clauses are short and no misreading would result.

Examples:

The external ministry of preaching the Kingdom is the most visible activity of the Christian congregation, and the internal ministry of shepherding the flock, the least.

The apostle Paul departed for Syria and Cilicia with Silas; Barnabas, for Cyprus with Mark; and Demas, for the world with the selfish ones.

The Reasoning book is printed on Bible paper, The Watchtower on freesheet, and Our Kingdom Ministry on newsprint.

Separating Coordinate Clauses

199 The coordinate clauses of a compound sentence are usually separated by a comma, though a semicolon may be called for because of complexity of thought. If the coordinate clauses are introduced by a dependent clause that applies to both, do not separate the coordinate clauses.—See also paragraph 183.

Examples:

Many congregations desperately need to build Kingdom Halls, and the need is being met by the Society Kingdom Hall Fund.

Under God’s Kingdom following the great tribulation, there will be no tears of sadness, no death, no mourning or pain; unending happiness and peace will be man’s lot.

Introduced by “For”

200 A coordinate clause introduced by the conjunction “for” should be set off by punctuation to prevent the misreading of “for” as a preposition.

Examples:

He was in a hurry, for his dinner was getting cold.

He ran, for his life depended on it.

Introduced by “So,” “Then,” or “Yet”

201 A coordinate clause introduced by “so,” “then,” or “yet” is separated from the preceding clause by a comma or a semicolon.

Examples:

I was late, so I skipped lunch.

I was late, yet I did not want to skip lunch.

I was already late; then I had to go back for my keys, so I had to skip lunch.

Joined by “But”

202 Coordinate clauses joined by “but” take a comma; a semicolon is used when the clauses are complex or when one clause is balanced against two others.

Examples:

Proofreaders may try to make a sentence clear by use of punctuation, but they cannot with punctuation alone clarify a sentence that is badly worded.

We know that Jesus began ruling in the heavens in 1914, and we know that the end of this system will take place in our generation; but we do not know exactly when the “great tribulation” will come.

203 If “but” is not followed by a clause, no comma is used. If it is the second element of a correlative conjunction, no comma is used.

Examples:

He came to the Public Meeting but did not stay for the Watchtower Study.

Not only did he come to the Public Meeting but he also stayed for the Watchtower Study.

No Coordinating Conjunction Used

204 Coordinate clauses that are not connected by a conjunction should be separated by a semicolon, not by a comma. Otherwise, the coordinate clauses should be punctuated as two simple sentences, or a suitable coordinating conjunction should be added.—See also paragraph 300.

Examples:

Not: The roll tender mounts the paper rolls, the bundler takes away the printed signatures.

But: The roll tender mounts the paper rolls; the bundler takes away the printed signatures.

Or: The roll tender mounts the paper rolls. The bundler takes away the printed signatures.

Or: The roll tender mounts the paper rolls, and the bundler takes away the printed signatures.

Short, Closely Connected Coordinate Clauses

205 The comma may be omitted between coordinate clauses that are short and closely connected in thought, especially if the connective is “and.”

Example:

They walked and we rode.

Verbs in the Imperative Mood

206 When one or both verbs in coordinate clauses are in the imperative mood and the subject is not expressed, separate the clauses with a comma.

Examples:

Stack all the chairs in the lobby, and thoroughly vacuum the carpet in the main hall.

You may not be able to come, but please try.

CONJUNCTIONS

207 Use a comma before “and,” “but,” “or,” “nor,” and “for” when they join independent clauses. If the clauses are very short and the second clause does not start with “for,” meaning “because,” or with “but,” the comma may be omitted.

Examples:

The Brooklyn factory prints books and brochures as well as magazines, but the Watchtower Farms factory prints only magazines.

There were not very many brothers available, for the convention was in progress at the same time.

208 A comma is not used before the subordinating conjunction “but that.”

Examples:

It never rains but that it pours.

There is clearly no question but that the theory of organic evolution is false.

I do not doubt but that you are surprised.

CONSECUTIVE PROPER NOUNS

209 Consecutive proper nouns that refer to different persons, places, and things should be separated by a comma. Years are treated like proper nouns.—See also paragraph 250.

Examples:

To Jehovah’s Witnesses, Christendom is an abomination.

From Dallas, Marie took the plane to New York.

For France, Versailles is a national treasure.

In 1914, Jesus became King.

DIRECT ADDRESS

210 Set off words and proper names used in direct address.

Examples:

I plead not guilty, Your Honor, to the charge of failing to pay my taxes.

If you agree, brothers, we will make an announcement to the congregation.

You may not like it, George, but all Bethelites are expected to make their beds before they go to work in the morning.

ELLIPSIS POINTS

211 If a portion of a quote is replaced with an ellipsis and the deleted portion is preceded by a comma, the comma is retained if it ties in grammatically with the portion following the ellipsis. If the deleted portion is not preceded by a comma but one is needed for the correct punctuation of the quote, the comma is inserted after the ellipsis.

Examples:

“Happy are those conscious of their spiritual need,... happy are those who mourn,... happy are the mild-tempered,... happy are the merciful.”—Matthew 5:3-7.

“Happy are you when people reproach you and persecute you ..., since your reward is great in the heavens.”—Matthew 5:11, 12.

212 If a portion of a quote is replaced with an ellipsis and the deleted portion is preceded by a period, the period is retained if it grammatically ties in with the portion following the ellipsis. If no period precedes the deleted portion, the ellipsis will cover for it, making it unnecessary to add a period after the ellipsis. The word following the ellipsis is cap or lowercase according to grammatical rules.

Examples:

“The heads of the horses were as heads of lions, and out of their mouths fire and smoke and sulphur issued forth.... Their tails are like serpents.—Revelation 9:17,19.

“And so to the Jews I became as a Jew ... To those without law I became as without law ... To the weak I became weak, that I might gain the weak.”—1 Corinthians 9:20-22.

EM DASH IN PLACE OF A COMMA

213 The em dash may be used to create an emphatic separation of words and to mark a sudden change in construction. The em dash should be used sparingly. The guidelines in this section present options rather than set requirements.

Abrupt Break or Afterthought

214 An em dash may be used to indicate an abrupt break in thought or to separate an afterthought from the main part of the sentence.

Examples:

Why did such men as Tyndale, Moffat, Judson, and Morrison labor for years—some even risking their lives—to translate a book for people they did not know?

Pope Lucius III established the Inquisition at the Council of Verona in 1184, and its organization and procedures were perfected—if such a word can be used to describe that fearsome institution—by other popes.

Appositives

215 Em dashes may be used to set off an appositive if an appositional comma might be misread as a series comma. If an em dash marks the opening of an appositive, an em dash should close the appositive unless the appositive ends the sentence.—See also paragraph 194.

Examples:

Ancient books had natural enemies—fire, moisture, mold.

The sin of the first man, Adam—Adamic sin—is the cause of the inbred imperfections of the human race.

Archaeologists have dug up many artifacts—pottery, ruins of buildings, clay tablets, coins, documents, monuments, and inscriptions—that confirm the accuracy of the Bible.

Elements Having Internal Commas

216 If a nonrestrictive element contains internal commas, em dashes may be used to set the element off.

Examples:

The beauty, the symmetry, and often the fragrance of flowers—from the tiniest desert flower, daisy, or buttercup to the intricate variety of the orchids—make one marvel.

While many are worried about the future, the Bible shows that things are far worse—and at the same time, far better—than they imagine.

Emphasis

217 The em dash may be used to set off a nonrestrictive element that merits special emphasis.

Examples:

Never is rebellion against Jehovah God justified—not now, not ever.

I consider myself much better off than those who profess to see—that is, physically—but who are spiritually blind.

The serious mistakes of King David were not covered over but were committed to writing—and that while David was still ruling as king.

Emphasizing Single Words

218 Single words requiring special emphasis may be set off by em dashes.—See also paragraph 361.

Examples:

The Bible’s references to an invisible realm inhabited by mighty spirit creatures cannot be proved—or disproved—scientifically.

Ulfilas set out to translate the Bible into what was then a modem but not a written language—Gothic.

Emphatic Second Independent Clause

219 To give special emphasis to the second independent clause in a compound sentence, an em dash may be used in place of a comma before the coordinating conjunction or an em dash may be used to replace both comma and conjunction.

Examples:

Thus, in one chapter of 166 words, there is only one word (three letters) in question after a thousand years of transmission—and this word does not significantly change the meaning of the passage.

Throughout his life, David consistently accepted reproof and correction—indeed, he prayed for it.

The Bible has inspired in many of its readers a remarkable degree of loyalty—some have risked death just to read it.

Repetition and Restatement

220 Em dashes may be used to set off and emphasize words that repeat or restate a preceding thought or to make the meaning more quickly understood.

Examples:

When Jehovah overthrew Babylon, he demonstrated his universal sovereignty—that he was the greatest King.

They are self-appointed prognosticators whose messages really spring from their own false reasoning—yes, their foolish, fleshly thinking.

Candid Bible writers spared no one—not even themselves—in recording the hard facts.

Jesus loyally paid the exact price required—a perfect human life—to balance the scales of justice.

INTERPOLATIONS

221 Interrupting words and expressions inserted into a sentence as comments or transitions are set off with commas.

Examples:

The great crowd, it seems clear, will be quite large even though Brother Rutherford did not think it would be.

The destruction of Jerusalem in the first century, on the other hand, took place after a siege of only four months.

222 Sentences with “do you think” should be carefully analyzed. Note the difference in the following expressions.

Examples:

Why do you think they are marching on city hall?

[Meaning: What reason do you have for thinking that they are marching?]

Why, do you think, are they marching on city hall?

[Meaning: For what reason are they marching?]

Why do you think Gilead was moved to Patterson?

[Meaning: What reason do you have for thinking that they have moved?]

Why, do you think, was Gilead moved to Patterson?

[Meaning: For what reason did Gilead move?]

223 An interpolation that does not require a pause in oral reading does not need to be set off.

Examples:

Of course we will.

There is therefore no reason to become alarmed.

That is indeed so.

INTRODUCTORY EXPRESSIONS

Independent Comments

224 Use commas after introductory adverbs and phrases when they function as independent comments.

Each comment should be reviewed to ensure that it expresses the writer’s intent.

Examples:

Note, for instance, the difference:

By all means, do come over.

By all means do it.

Perhaps, when you come tomorrow.

Perhaps you can come tomorrow.

Examples:

Function	Expression
Affirmation:	by all means, indeed, of course, yet
Denial:	no
Regret:	unfortunately
Pleasure:	fortunately
Qualification:	ideally, if necessary, literally
Personal viewpoint	according to him, in my opinion, personally
Assertion of candor:	actually, frankly, in reality, to be honest
Assertion of fact:	certainly, doubtless, in fact, obviously
Weak assertion:	apparently, perhaps, presumably

Introductory “So”

225 No comma is needed after an introductory “so” unless the sentence could be misread without it.

Examples:

Not: So what if Kingdom Hall expenses exceed the budget?

But: So, what if Kingdom Hall expenses exceed the budget?

Introductory “Thus”

226 A comma is used after the introductory word “thus” if it conveys the thought “for this reason.” No comma is used if it conveys the thought “in this manner.” Care should be exercised when this comma is inserted or deleted, since it can change the meaning of the sentence.

Examples:

Isaiah prophesied that Jehovah’s anointed servant would be despised, avoided, afflicted, wounded, and pierced. Thus, Jesus’ hardships on earth would test his integrity to the limit.

Isaiah prophesied that Jehovah’s anointed servant would be despised, avoided, afflicted, wounded, and pierced. Thus Jesus would be tested while on earth.

Transitional Expressions

227 Use commas after introductory adverbs and phrases when they function as transitional expressions. These nonessential words and phrases help the reader mentally relate the preceding thought to the idea being introduced.

Examples:

Function	Expression
Addition:	also, besides, furthermore, in addition
Consequence:	accordingly, as a result, consequently, therefore
Summarizing:	briefly, by and large, in conclusion
Generalizing:	as a rule, generally, usually
Restatement:	in other words, namely, that is
Contrast and comparison:	instead, likewise, on the contrary, rather, yet
Concession:	anyway, in any event, nevertheless, still
Sequence:	afterward, at first, finally, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile
Diversion:	by the way, incidentally
Illustration:	for example, for instance, for one thing

Transitional Words Versus Adverbs

228 The use of words as transitions and the use of the same words as adverbs should be carefully distinguished.

Examples:

However limited he may otherwise be, he gives a very effective witness.

However, limited as he is, we would be unwise if we assigned him that responsibility.

Yet, another reason for giving him the job is that he is punctual.

Yet another reason for giving him the job is that he is punctual.

MULTIPLE ADJECTIVES PRECEDING A NOUNS

Adjective and Noun Forming a Unit

229 One or more adjectives may be included with a noun, forming a unit. An adjective modifying this unit should not be separated from it by a comma.

Examples:

Not: They were confronted with the tall, imposing, Babylonian, State idol.

But: They were confronted with the tall, imposing Babylonian State idol. [“Babylonian State idol” is one term, referring to a unique image.]

Not: The missionaries found listening ears in the many small, native villages they visited.

But: The missionaries found listening ears in the many small native villages they visited. [“Na

tive villages” is a unit, a single thing.]

Not: It was a warm, beautiful, sunny, April day.

But: It was a warm, beautiful, sunny April day. [“April day” is considered to be a compound noun, one item. The adjectives modify “April day,” not “day.”]

Not: He is a bright, charming, talented, young man.

But: He is a bright, charming, talented young man. [“Young man” is thought of as one word.]

Adjective Modifying a Word in a Series

230 If an adjective in a series of consecutive adjectives modifies another word in the series, do not separate them by a comma.

Examples:

The first stone in the first row of the breastpiece of the high priest was a brilliant red ruby. [This highlights the brilliance of the color rather than the reflectance of the stone.]

The pioneers rented a room in a gleaming white house. [The color of the house was a gleaming white.]

Independent Adjectives

231 Use a comma to separate two or more independent adjectives that precede a noun only if “and” could be used in place of the comma.

Examples:

The smooth, rounded cone of Mount Tabor rises abruptly from the Plain of Jezreel.

The churches seem to specialize in long, stultifying, meaningless sermons.

NUMBERS

Dates

Day, Month, and Year Given

232 Use a comma following the year in such expressions as the following.

Examples:

Not: On July 16, 1962 there was .. .

But: On July 16, 1962, there was . ..

Only Month and Year Given

233 When the month and the year are given but not the day, commas are not used.

Examples:

He started writing the book in May 1994 and finished in April 1995.

World War I erupted in July 1914.

Only Name of Day Given With Year

234 When the name of a holiday, or other special day, and the year are given but not the month and date, commas are not used.

Examples:

The Christian congregation was founded in Jerusalem at Pentecost 33 C.E.

Christmas 1927 was the last one observed at Bethel because the holiday was conclusively exposed as pagan on December 12, 1928, in a radio talk given by Brother Richard H. Barber.

Dimensions, Weights, and Measures

235 Commas are not used in dimensions, weights, and measures.

Examples:

The fierce muskellunge was 4 feet 7 inches long and weighed 41 pounds 5 ounces.

The Kingdom Hall auditorium is 74 feet 6 inches long, but the platform takes up 10 feet 11 inches of it.

Figures of Four Digits or More

236 Commas should be used to set off figures of four digits or more.—See also paragraph 238.

Examples:

1,914 years ago

200,000,000

Unrelated Figures

237 When two unrelated figures appear adjacent to each other in a sentence, reword to separate them if possible. Otherwise, separate them with commas.—See also paragraph 439.

Examples:

Possible: In 1914, 14 nations were engulfed by World War I.

Better: World War I engulfed 14 nations in 1914.

Or: In 1914, World War I engulfed 14 nations.

When Commas Are Not Used in Figures

238 Commas are not used in house numbers, degrees of temperature, page numbers, radio-frequency designations, serial numbers, telephone numbers, years, and ZIP codes. They are also not used to the right of a decimal point or to the right of a diagonal.—See also paragraph 407.

Examples:

3848 Atlantic Avenue	1/3294
3071 °F	page 1612
1550 kHz [not, kc.]	625-3600
the year 1914	3.14159

“O,” “OH”

239 Do not use a comma after the vocative “O.” The vocative “O” requires another word to complete it. Use a comma after “oh” if other words follow. Set off “oh” if it is embedded in a sentence.

Examples:

“To you, O Jehovah, I keep calling. O my Rock, do not be deaf to me.”—Psalm 28:1.

Oh, how I enjoyed that convention!

We have waited, oh, so long!

PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS

240 Set off a parenthetical phrase or clause that interrupts the even flow of a sentence and could be omitted without altering the meaning of the sentence.

Examples:

Why has God permitted so much time, about 6,000 years now, for settling this issue?

The identity of the “other sheep,” which occupied our attention for decades, has now been clearly established.

241 Set off a phrase, a name, or a number that makes a preceding reference more specific.

Examples:

A clear identification of “the faithful and discreet slave” is given in The Watchtower of March 1, 1981, page 24, column 2, paragraph 1.

The Bethel policy on Saturdays off is found in the Dwelling manual, page 12, under the subhead “Saturdays Off.”

PHRASES

Absolute Phrase

242 Set off an absolute phrase wherever it appears in a sentence.

Examples:

The rain having stopped, we resumed street work.

We opened the street door, it being unlocked, and rang the doorbell in the foyer.

Correlative Phrase

243 A correlative phrase is not set off from the main clause unless the phrase is nonrestrictive.—See also paragraph 193.

Examples:

In Mexico well-established congregations are found not only in the big cities but in the rurals as well.

Jehovah’s Witnesses are criticized by groups of every sort, both religious and nonreligious.

Our new territory varies a lot, not only from county to county but even from home to home.

Another important feature of true worship is faith in Jesus Christ, not only as a great prophet but also as God’s only-begotten Son.

Elements Common to More Than One Phrase

244 Use a comma before an element that belongs equally to two or more expressions but that appears only after the last expression.

Examples:

We can often readily recognize, but many times cannot readily solve, problems that affect the work.

As Jehovah’s Witnesses are honestly, so Christendom is dishonestly, handling the Word of God.

Infinitive Phrase

245 A comma is not used after an infinitive phrase that is the subject of a sentence.

Examples:

To write clearly requires careful organization of ideas as well as sentence structure that is free of ambiguity.

To acquire mere acquaintances is easy; to make true friends is not.

246 A comma is used after an introductory infinitive phrase.

Examples:

To be accepted for Bethel, you must have a recommendation from the elders in your congregation and from the circuit overseer.

To remain in Bethel, you must carry out your assignments responsibly and adhere to Bethel standards of deportment.

To stay healthy, you must eat nutritious food.

Interrogative Phrase

247 A short direct question that falls at the end of a sentence is preceded by a comma.

Examples:

You are going to the meeting, aren’t you?

Starting on the top floor seems better, don’t you agree?

Getting all your homework done first is a good idea, isn’t it?

Introductory Phrase

248 Do not set off an introductory phrase if the phrase immediately precedes the verb.

Examples:

Not: Just to the west of the Brooklyn Bridge, rises the office complex of the Society.

But: Just to the west of the Brooklyn Bridge rises the office complex of the Society.

Not: Within all congregations, will be found a wide range of personalities and aptitudes.

But: Within all congregations will be found a wide range of personalities and aptitudes.

249 A comma is usually not necessary following an introductory phrase unless the sentence could be misread without the comma or unless the phrase consists of four or more words.

Examples:

In the spring of 1919, a federal court reversed the convictions of the Society’s representatives.

At times, we have to suffer hardship for the sake of the preaching work.

On rare occasions a student will begin attending meetings on his own.

250 If an introductory phrase ends in a figure and is followed by a proper noun or the figure could be read as a modifier of the word that follows, set off the phrase even if it has fewer than four words.—See also paragraph 209.

Examples:

In 1914, God’s Kingdom was established in the heavens.

Since 1938, elders have been appointed rather than elected.

251 If an introductory phrase ends with a verb or a preposition, a comma is used before a following noun.

Examples:

Seeing the brothers escaping, the frustrated clergy vilified the leaders of the mob.

Soon after, renovation started on the 360 building.

252 If a question is introduced by a phrase, a comma is used before the question.

Examples:

In 1914, what was the identity of the king of the north and the king of the south?

In time, what preaching method became identified with Jehovah’s Witnesses?

Participial Phrase

253 Set off a participial phrase unless it is restrictive. Set off a participial phrase that applies to the subject, not the object, when it occurs at the end of the sentence.

Examples:

Last weekend, working the territory around the Kingdom Hall, we found a person who had never before seen The Watchtower.

Congregations that need a Kingdom Hall loan must submit an application showing how the money will be used.

She gave her a gift, showing she wanted to be kind.

QUOTES

Direct Quote

254 A direct quotation of a few words should be set off by a comma from the statement that introduced it.

Examples:

Paul wrote, “Preach the word.”

Jesus said, “Go forth” and, “Make disciples.”

255 When the opening portion of an interrupted quote has closing punctuation, no comma is used.—See also paragraph 464.

Examples:

Not: “Look!,” the angel exclaimed, “I am declaring to you good news.”

But: “Look!” the angel exclaimed, “I am declaring to you good news.”

Parts of Speech

256 A quoted word or expression that is the subject or object of a sentence should not be set off.

Examples:

“Keep on the watch” was repeatedly stressed by Jesus.

For the information marches of the 1930’s, the slogan on the first placard was “Religion is a snare and a racket.”

“Look!” is used in the New World Translation where the King James Version has “behold” or “lo.” 257 A quotation immediately preceded by the conjunction “that” should not be separated from “that” by a comma.

Examples:

Not: The Careful Writer says that, “we can introduce clarity, precision, and grace into the most ordinary of our written communications.”

But: The Careful Writer says that “we can introduce clarity, precision, and grace into the most ordinary of our written communications.”

Not: The Bible assures us that, “everyone who calls on the name of Jehovah will be saved.”

But: The Bible assures us that “everyone who calls on the name of Jehovah will be saved.”

Quoted Statements

258 A descriptive participle following a quote should be set off.

Examples:

“Now comes the best part,” he announced, smiling.

“Be careful. The streets are icy,” he cautioned, frowning.

259 An adverb following a quote should not be set off.

Examples:

“Remember, don’t drink the water,” he directed firmly.

“Look at the beautiful sunset!” she said excitedly.

“He should have been arrested!” stated the newspaper boldly.

RESTRICTIVE AND NONRESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS

260 When a participial, infinitive, or prepositional phrase or a clause appears at a point other than the beginning of a sentence or of a clause, commas are omitted or inserted depending on whether the modifier is restrictive or nonrestrictive.

Nonrestrictive

261 A nonrestrictive phrase or clause should be set off with commas, since it can be omitted without changing the meaning of the principal clause.

Examples:

Mundane activities, such as mowing the yard and washing the dog, cannot Scripturally be classified as sacred service.

At Bethel, where everyone is a dedicated servant of Jehovah, there is a unique form of security.

Restrictive

262 A restrictive phrase or clause should not be set off by commas.

Examples:

We should be very observant and cautious when witnessing in a dangerous neighborhood.

Such features of the public ministry as return visits and Bible studies are properly ranked as sacred service.

“Such as” and “Such ... as”

263 “Such as” and “such ... as” may be used to introduce one or more examples of the kind of thing or person that is being discussed.
264 A nonrestrictive expression introduced by “such as” is set off. A restrictive expression introduced by “such as” is not set off.

Example:

Marsupials, such as kangaroos and opossums, have an abdominal pouch for carrying their young.

Animals such as kangaroos and opossums have an abdominal pouch for carrying their young.

265 “Such ... as” is used with a restrictive expression and is not set off.

Example:

Such animals as kangaroos and opossums are marsupials, which have an abdominal pouch for carrying their young.

SCRIPTURE CITATIONS

Footnotes

266 When the Scripture citation refers to a footnote on a Bible verse, no comma is used between the Bible book name or mnemonic and the word “footnote” when such a reference is part of text. When the footnote citation appears in parentheses or at the end of a paragraph following an em dash, a comma is used to set off the footnote notation.

Examples:

A Jerusalem Bible footnote on Genesis 2:17 makes this perceptive comment on the significance of partaking of the forbidden fruit: “It is the power of deciding for himself what is good and what is evil and of acting accordingly, a claim to complete moral independence by which man refuses to recognise his status as a created being. The first sin was an attack on God’s sovereignty, a sin of pride.”

Note this perceptive comment on the significance of partaking of the forbidden fruit: “It is the power of deciding for himself what is good and what is evil and of acting accordingly, a claim to complete moral independence by which man refuses to recognise his status as a created being. The first sin was an attack on God’s sovereignty, a sin of pride.”—Genesis 2:17, Jerusalem Bible, footnote.

Full Chapters

267 In field publications, when a Scripture citation in parentheses or following an em dash at the end of a paragraph is given for full chapters, spell out the word “chapter” and use a comma after the book name.—See also paragraphs 8,299.

Examples:

Nebuchadnezzar dreamed of an image made of various metals. (Daniel, chapter 2) Daniel interpreted the dream.

Daniel interpreted Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of an image made of various metals.—Daniel, chapter 2.

268 When a Scripture citation for full chapters is part of text, no comma is used between the book name and the word “chapter.” When such a citation is part of a “See,” “Compare,” or “Contrast” statement within parentheses or following an em dash at the end of a paragraph, no comma is used.

Examples:

The account in Daniel chapter 2 shows that Daniel interpreted Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of an image made of various metals.

Daniel interpreted Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of an image made of various metals.—See Daniel chapter 2.

The account in Daniel chapter 2 shows that Daniel interpreted Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of an image made of various metals. (Compare Daniel chapter 4.) Nebuchadnezzar rewarded Daniel with a high office in the government.

SERIES

269 In a series in the form “a, b, and c” or “red, white, and blue,” a comma is used before the conjunction.

Examples:

Among the most discussed dates in theocratic chronology are 607 B.C.E., 70 C.E., and 1914 C.E.

Faithful men of old, such as Abraham, Moses, and David, will no doubt be resurrected soon after Armageddon.

270 At times, the intended meaning of a sentence determines whether a comma should be used before a conjunction or not.

Examples:

“Marie, Alice, and Bob are here.” [Three persons announced]

“Marie, Alice and Bob are here.” [Two persons announced, Marie being addressed]

271 A comma should not be used after the last member of a series unless the sentence structure demands a comma at that point.

Examples:

Not: Tomatoes, carrots, and radishes, are served in salads at Bethel.

But: Tomatoes, carrots, and radishes are served in salads at Bethel.

Not: Among neighbors, workmates, and relatives we may find hearing ears.

But: Among neighbors, workmates, and relatives, we may find hearing ears.

Not: Many youths view movie stars, musicians, and athletes, as role models.

But: Many youths view movie stars, musicians, and athletes as role models.

272 If all elements in a series are joined by “and” or by “or,” do not use commas to separate the elements.

Examples:

The weatherman called for rain or snow or sleet, but that sounds like a guess rather than a forecast.

The four living creatures of Ezekiel’s vision could go left or right or forward or backward without turning.

273 In a series of three or more items, do not use a comma in place of “and” before the last item unless the intent is to indicate that the list is incomplete. Omission of “and” implies “and the like.”—See also paragraph 294.

Examples:

Potatoes can be used to make chips, salads, patties, French fries. [Implies incomplete listing]

Potatoes can be used to make chips, salads, patties, and French fries. [Implies complete listing]

274 Care should be exercised to distinguish appositives from elements in a series.

Examples:

Not: During the latter part of the week, Brother Smith, the circuit overseer, and Brother Jones called on inactive publishers. [Ambiguous. Brother Smith was the circuit overseer.]

But: During the latter part of the week, Brother Jones and Brother Smith, the circuit overseer, called on inactive publishers.

Nonessential Element Following a Conjunction

275 If a nonessential element follows the conjunction (and, or, nor) in a series, omit the comma before the conjunction to avoid excessive punctuation.

Examples:

Not: Congregation publishers, pioneers, missionaries, and, of course, Bethelites were on hand for the dedication of the new branch facilities.

But: Congregation publishers, pioneers, missionaries and, of course, Bethelites were on hand for

the dedication of the new branch facilities.

Of Clauses

276 In a series of three or more clauses without internal punctuation, a comma is used before the conjunction.—See also paragraph 278.

Examples:

To cover our missionary assignment, we walked, we sailed, we paddled, we drove, and we hitchhiked—whatever it took to search out the people.

In preparing recommendations, the elders consider whether a brother adequately manifests the fruitage of the spirit, whether he is dependable, whether he is steady in field service, whether he attends meetings regularly, and whether he is able to give counsel.

We are strengthened spiritually when we preach, when we meet together, when we study, and when we pray.

277 If one or more members of a series contain commas, semicolons may be necessary between the series members to make the meaning clear.

Examples:

Auxiliary pioneers have a field service requirement of 60 hours per month; regular pioneers, 90 hours; and special pioneers and missionaries, 140 hours.

Bethel families produce literature; congregations distribute it; but angels, the invisible agents behind all of it, support the process to ensure that the everlasting good news is preached.

278 In a series, independent clauses with internal punctuation are separated by a semicolon. Short independent clauses, however, may be separated by commas.—See also paragraph 276.

Example:

To get to Newark International Airport from Bethel, cross the Brooklyn Bridge to lower Manhattan; follow the signs to the Holland Tunnel; from the Holland Tunnel, take Route 9 over the Pulaski Skyway; then follow the airport signs.

Of Phrases

279 In a series of three or more phrases, a comma is used before the conjunction.

Examples:

To be true to our dedication, we must consistently demonstrate loyalty to Jehovah, to his Word, and to his organization.

Some basic speech counsel points in the Theocratic Ministry School are introduction of proper length and appropriate to theme, repetition for emphasis, and conclusion of proper length.

Of Predicates

280 In a sentence having a compound predicate of three or more parts, a comma is used before the conjunction.

Examples:

Clutching his perishable prize, the little boy jerked open the front door, raced to the kitchen, flung open the refrigerator, and carefully put the Popsicle in the freezer.

To be spiritually healthy, a Bethelite must be present for the daily text discussion, attend the Monday night Watchtower Study, support his congregation, avoid a recreation-oriented personal life, pray reverently, and study regularly.

Of Words

281 In a series of three or more words, a comma should be used before the conjunction.

Examples:

Bookbinding materials include vinyl, glue, paste, crash, thread, and chipboard.

A nutritionally proper diet requires a balanced intake of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber.

282 Words customarily used in pairs are set off as a single element in a series.

Examples:

Watchtower and Awake! magazines, books and Bibles, return visits and Bible studies, and dedication and baptism are combinations that form naturally in our field ministry.

Bread and butter, pen and ink, and cream and sugar are things that are often thought of together.

Construction Normally Avoided

283 A compound subject consisting of a series without a conjunction is normally avoided. To correct such a construction, delete the last comma and use a conjunction before the last element of the series.

Examples:

Undesirable: Books, magazines, brochures, tracts, were distributed.

Preferable: Books, magazines, brochures, and tracts were distributed.

Series Elements Having Closing Punctuation

284 Elements in a series may have such closing punctuation as an exclamation point or a question mark. A serial comma follows the closing punctuation of the element.

Examples:

The articles in the cover series were entitled “Are You at Peace With Your Neighbor?,” “Pursue Peace With Your Neighbor,” and “Who Is My Neighbor?”

Bible commentaries that have been published by the Watch Tower Society include ‘‘Babylon the Great Has Fallen! ” God’s Kingdom Rules!, “Your Will Be Done on Earth,” and “Then Is Finished the Mystery of God.”

“THAT,” “WHICH”

285 Do not use a comma before “that” introducing a restrictive clause. If a nonrestrictive clause is introduced, use a comma and “which.”

Examples:

The message that Jehovah’s people preach is of the greatest importance to everyone on earth.

The Bible, which is available to almost everyone on earth, contains a life-giving message.

“Of Which” and Similar Forms Using “Which”

286 “Which” may be restrictive in clauses introduced by “of which,” “in which,” “that which,” and similar combinations.

Examples:

Jehovah’s Witnesses form a worldwide brotherhood of which Jehovah has said: “Look! My own servants will rejoice.”

Jehovah’s love moves us to keep our hearts fixed on that which is righteous and upright.

It was a muddy wallow in which only a real hog could delight.

“That” With Introductory Clause

287 When “that” introduces a dependent clause that is introductory in nature, do not use a comma following “that.”

Examples:

Not: It is our expectation that, when Gog of Magog launches his attack, all the governments will assault Jehovah’s people.

But: It is our expectation that when Gog of Magog launches his attack, all the governments will

assault Jehovah’s people.

288 When “that” introduces an interrupting dependent clause, set off the clause.

Examples:

They confirmed that, as it had been rumored, they were going to be leaving.

Jesus prophesied that, as we have experienced, the last days would be a time of increasing distress worldwide.

“TOO”

289 When preceded by a verb or a verb form, the word “too” should be set off (even though the pronoun “you” may be understood). When preceded by a proper noun, noun, pronoun, or noun substitute, “too” is not set off.

Examples:

The importance of meeting attendance is well understood, too, by Witnesses in war-tom countries.

Notice, too, that Jesus was always loving toward his disciples.

We rejoice, too, in the prospect of eternal life.

Jehovah too can be hurt at heart.

We too can share in the joy of preaching.

You too should cultivate an attitude of fearlessness.

Traveling too can be educational.

290 When “too” follows an introductory expression, it is set off.

Examples:

Today, too, people grieve Jehovah’s spirit.

Then, too, backgrounds vary greatly.

291 When “too” appears at the end of a sentence or of an internal clause, it should not be set off.

Examples:

Although Revelation 19:11-21 explicitly describes the destruction of only the political element, the other secular elements will be destroyed too.

Whether young or old, you can enjoy recreation too, but it should be balanced with spiritual activities.

292 The word “too” should not be set off from a word that it modifies.

Examples:

Sadly, as experience shows, the world’s relief aid is usually too little too late.

Jehovah has done things too wonderful for us even to comprehend.

WRONG USE OF COMMAS

293 The following list covers the most common misuses of the comma.

After Last Item of a Series

294 No comma should be inserted after the last item of a series when the final item is preceded by a conjunction. If there is no conjunction, a comma may be inserted to indicate that the series is not complete, but this construction is normally avoided.—See also paragraph 273.

Examples:

Not: Reading, writing, and arithmetic, are still the basics of education.

But: Reading, writing, and arithmetic are still the basics of education.

Around Restrictive Words Within a Sentence

295 Commas should not set off restrictive elements within a sentence.

Examples:

Not: Because the trains were running late, we had to walk, very fast, to get to the meeting on time.

But: Because the trains were running late, we had to walk very fast to get to the meeting on time.

Before an Indirect Quotation

296 A comma should not be inserted before an indirect quotation.

Examples:

Not: The circuit overseer asked, how many auxiliary pioneers there were in the last six months.

But: The circuit overseer asked how many auxiliary pioneers there were in the last six months.

Before Restrictive Element at End of Sentence

297 A comma should not be inserted before a restrictive element at the end of a sentence.

Examples:

Not: Many desire to serve in a foreign field, as missionaries.

But: Many desire to serve in a foreign field as missionaries.

Not: Brothers register with Selective Service, when they reach 18 years of age.

But: Brothers register with Selective Service when they reach 18 years of age.

Before Second Element of a Correlative Conjunction

298 No comma is used before the second element of a correlative conjunction.

Examples:

Not: Not only do men disregard the laws of man, but they also flout the pronouncements of God. But: Not only do men disregard the laws of man but they also flout the pronouncements of God. Not: Our course of action is always determined by the Bible, whether the nations approve, or not.

But: Our course of action is always determined by the Bible, whether the nations approve or not.

Not: We cannot overemphasize the importance of both house-to-house work, and return visits.

But: We cannot overemphasize the importance of both house-to-house work and return visits.

Not: The Bible neither caters to human weakness, nor sets standards that are too high for weak

humans to meet.

But: The Bible neither caters to human weakness nor sets standards that are too high for weak humans to meet.

Between Bible Book Name and Chapter in Text

299 A comma is not used between a Bible book name and the word “chapter” in text.—See also paragraphs 267-8.

Examples:

Not: A good wife is described at length in Proverbs, chapter 31.

But: A good wife is described at length in Proverbs chapter 31.

Between Independent Clauses Not Joined by a Conjunction

300 A comma is not used to separate independent clauses. A conjunction or a semicolon may be used. Alternatively, the clauses may also be punctuated as two sentences.—See also paragraph 204.

Examples:

Not: The brothers take care of the heavier physical work, the sisters are given the lighter assignments.

But: The brothers take care of the heavier physical work. The sisters are given the lighter assignments.

Or: The brothers take care of the heavier physical work; the sisters are given the lighter assignments.

Or: The brothers take care of the heavier physical work, and the sisters are given the lighter assignments.

Or: The brothers take care of the heavier physical work, while the sisters are given the lighter assignments.

In Place of a Conjunction

301 In a compound predicate of two parts, do not use a comma in place of a conjunction to join the parts.—See also paragraph 197.

Examples:

Not: At the end of each month, we are supposed to fill out our field service report, immediately drop it in the box.

But: At the end of each month, we are supposed to fill out our field service report and immediately drop it in the box.

Separation of Verb and Object

302 A comma should not separate the object of a sentence from the verb.

Examples:

Not: The most important Christian quality is, love.

But: The most important Christian quality is love.

Topics Considered

Hyphens

Purpose of the Hyphen

Compound Adjectives

Adjective Plus a Noun With “d” or “ed” added

Adjective Component Ending in “d”

Adjective Plus Noun

Non Preceding the Word Modified

Adverb Plus Adjective or Participle

To Prevent Misreading

When the “ly” Modifier Can Be Misread

When the Adverb Can Be Misread

When “More” Forms a Compound of Comparative Degree

Compound Modifier That Is Quoted

Compounds Denoting Color

Combining Two Colors or a Color and a Noun

One Component Ending in “ish”

Noun or Adjective Plus Participle

Components Employed With Different Meaning

Verb Plus Preposition or Adverb

Used as an Adjective

When the Compound Adjective Is a Proper Noun

Used as a Noun

Used as a Verb

Form Dependent on Meaning

Compound Expressions Ordinarily Written as Two Words

Compound Nouns Ordinarily Written as a Solid Word

Compound Nouns Written as Two Words

Compounds That May Change Form

Compounds That May Require a Change in Form

In Apposition to a Noun

Use of “Full” and the Suffix “fill”

When a Suffix Is Added

Number Compounds

Cardinal Numbers

With an Adjective or Participle

With a Noun

With “odd”

“Of a” or “of an” Between a Fraction and a Noun

As Modifiers of Nouns

As Nouns

Ordinal Numbers

Phrases Used as Adjectives

Prefixes

As Found in Webster’s

Deviations for Easier Reading

When the Second Component Is Capped

Words Usually Hyphenated

Words Usually Treated as Solid

According to Webster’s

Suffix That Creates Three Successive “1’s”

With the Suffix “fold”

With Figures

With Spelled-Out Numbers

Suspended Compounds

Adjectives With One Component in Common

Expressions to Be Avoided

Two Nouns of Equal Value

PURPOSE OF THE HYPHEN

303 The purpose of the hyphen is to prevent misreading. To that end, the three most important functions of the hyphen are

1. to indicate that two or more words are functioning together as a temporary compound
2. to indicate permanent compounds
3. to avoid ambiguity

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

304 If listed in Webster’s, a hyphenated compound should be used as listed regardless of its position in a sentence. If not listed in Webster’s, a compound should be treated according to the rules found herein.

Adjective Plus a Noun With “d” or “ed” Added

305 When a compound adjective consists of an adjective plus a noun with “d” or “ed” added, the combination should be hyphenated whether it appears before the noun modified or elsewhere in the sentence.

Examples:

A cold-faced householder answered the door.

Clergymen are spiritually dull-witted.

They were in good spirits, bright-eyed and smiling.

Adjective Component Ending in “d”

306 When the adjective component of the compound ends in “d,” omit the “d.”

Examples:

ripple-edged tray	[Having rippled edges]
curve-walled enclosure	[Having curved walls]

Adjective Plus Noun

Not Preceding the Word Modified

307 A compound adjective consisting of an adjective plus a noun is not hyphenated when it does not precede the word modified.—See also paragraph 304.

Examples:

Christians of the first century were often persecuted.

Living in our modem day is stressful.

Preceding the Word Modified

308 A compound adjective consisting of an adjective plus a noun is hyphenated when it precedes the word modified.—See also paragraphs 317,329.

Examples:

first-century Christians

modem-day living

To Prevent Misreading

309 A compound adjective consisting of an adjective plus a noun may need to be hyphenated to prevent misreading.

Examples:

The years had slipped away, and he began to realize that he was now an old book collector. [An old person who collects books]

He was an old-book collector. [Someone who collects old books]

Adverb Plus Adjective or Participle

Distinguishing “ly” Adjectives From “ly” Adverbs

310 Since some adjectives end in “ly,” adjectives and adverbs must be carefully distinguished in an adverb plus adjective or participle compound.

When the Adverb Cannot Be Misread

311 In a compound consisting of an adverb plus an adjective or a participle, do not hyphenate the compound if the adverb cannot be misread as an “ly” adjective modifying the noun.

Examples:

newly interested person

recently formed congregation

frequently used expressions

repeatedly quoted scripture

a quickly built Kingdom Hall [not, quick-build]

When the “ly” Modifier Can Be Misread

312 In a compound consisting of an “ly” modifier and an adjective or a participle, hyphenate the compound if the modifier could be misread as modifying the noun.

Examples:

monthly-average earnings

scholarly-looking man

worldly-acting teenager

daily-updated Web page

Not Preceding the Word Modified

313 When a compound adjective consisting of an adverb plus an adjective or a participle does not precede the word modified but appears elsewhere in the sentence, the compound is hyphenated only if it is hyphenated in Webster’s or if it can be misread.

Examples:

Materialism is a danger that is ever present.

It is a territory that is most desired by pioneers.

It concerns people who are best informed.

His thoughts were well expressed.

She looks well-dressed in silk.

Preceding the Word Modified

When the Adverb Can Be Misread

314 When a compound adjective consists of an adverb plus an adjective or a participle, the compound is hyphenated if it precedes the word it modifies and the adverb can be misread as a modifier of the noun.

Examples:

a long-awaited verdict

the above-cited principles

a fast-moving account

the best-informed people

a well-educated man

the worst-dressed woman

When the Adverb Cannot Be Misread

315 When a compound adjective consists of an adverb plus an adjective or a participle, the compound is not hyphenated if the adverb cannot be misread as a modifier of the noun.

Examples:

a less severe climate a less alarming condition

a much appreciated gift the then existing kingdom

a most impressive event the least motivating talk

When “More” Forms a Compound of Comparative Degree

316 When the adverb “more” forms a compound of comparative degree, the compound is not hyphenated. However, in some cases the adverb may be misread. If so, reword the expression.

Examples:

Not: We can look forward to more remarkable developments. [Could be understood either as “events that are more remarkable” or as “more events that are remarkable”]

But: We can look forward to further remarkable developments. [Or other adjustment that clarifies the meaning]

Not: The expanding organization needs more spiritual men. [Could be understood either as “men who are more spiritual” or as “more men who are spiritual”]

But: The expanding organization needs an increasing number of spiritual men. [Or other adjustment that clarifies the meaning]

Not: The territory needs more thorough coverage. [Could be understood either as “more thorough” or as “more coverage”]

But: The territory needs to be covered more thoroughly.

Or: The territory needs to be covered more frequently. [Or other adjustment that clarifies the meaning]

Compound Modifier That Is Quoted

317 When a compound modifier is quoted, no hyphen is used, since the quotes link the elements of the compound and thereby prevent misreading.—See also paragraphs 308, 329.

Examples:

Not: Some opposers charge that Jehovah’s Witnesses are a “Devil-inspired” religion.

But: Some opposers charge that Jehovah’s Witnesses are a “Devil inspired” religion.

Or: Some opposers charge that Jehovah’s Witnesses are a Devil-inspired religion.

Many people bring bogus “pain and suffering” lawsuits.

Psychics may claim “road to Damascus” revelations.

Compounds Denoting Color

Combining Two Colors or a Color and a Noun

318 An adjective compounded of two colors or of a color and a noun is always hyphenated.

Examples:

The crystal was emerald-green.

Emerald-green grass is beautiful.

One Component Ending in “ish”

319 A compound adjective denoting color in which the first component ends in “ish” is hyphenated when it precedes the word modified or when it is a predicate adjective.

Examples:

The leaves are reddish-brown.

Reddish-brown leaves covered the ground.

Yellowish-green foliage decorated the hillside.

Preceding the Word Modified

320 A compound adjective denoting color that precedes the word modified is hyphenated.

Examples:

A metallic-red car sat in the driveway.

Everything was covered with light-gray ash.

Dark-brown sludge floated on the polluted waters.

Noun or Adjective Plus Participle

Components Employed With Different Meaning

321 A component consisting of a noun or an adjective plus a participle should not be confused with one having the same components intended to express a different meaning.

Examples:

Not: Much attention is being focused on the problem of plastic-killing sea life. [This incorrectly states that sea life is killing plastic.]

But: Much attention is being focused on the problem of plastic killing sea life. [This correctly states that plastic debris in the sea is killing sea life.]

Not Preceding the Word Modified

322 A compound consisting of a noun or an adjective plus a participle is not hyphenated when it does not precede the word modified unless misreading can result.

Examples:

Our clothing should not be shabby looking.

The experience was mind numbing.

The region was war tom.

The talk “The Challenge of Maturity” was thought-provoking. [Stimulated thought]

The talk “The Challenge of Maturity” was thought provoking. [Judged to be irritating]

The apostles were able to cure the demon-possessed.

Preceding the Word Modified

323 When a compound adjective consisting of a noun or an adjective plus a participle precedes the word it modifies, the compound is hyphenated.

Examples:

It was a mind-numbing experience.

Who would buy such a shabby-looking jacket?

He lived in a war-tom region.

Verb Plus Preposition or Adverb

Used as an Adjective

Not Preceding the Word Modified

324 A compound adjective consisting of a simple verb plus a preposition or an adverb is not hyphenated when it does not precede the word modified.

Examples:

In most Bethel rooms, some cabinets are built in.

Wax that is built up is not easily removed.

Preceding the Word Modified

325 A compound adjective consisting of a simple verb plus a preposition or an adverb is hyphenated when it precedes the word it modifies.

Examples:

Built-in cabinets are popular in Bethel.

Built-up wax is not easily removed.

The brothers need a pull-together spirit.

326 No hyphen should be used between a hyphenated compound adjective and the word it modifies.

Examples:

Not: He used the trade-in-value of his old car for the first payment on a new one.

But: He used the trade-in value of his old car for the first payment on a new one.

Used as a Noun

327 When a compound consisting of a simple verb plus a preposition or an adverb is used as a noun, it may be written as a solid word or may be hyphenated depending on the sentence structure.

Examples:

A buildup of wax is not easily removed.

In Bethel rooms there are many built-ins.

Used as a Verb

328 When a compound consisting of a simple verb plus a preposition or an adverb is used as a verb, it is written as two words.

Examples:

If furniture is waxed too much, wax is easily built up.

The pioneers wore out their shoes.

Jerry asked if he could stand in for Ron.

When the Compound Adjective Is a Proper Noun

329 When the compound adjective is a proper noun, no hyphen is used.—See also paragraphs 308,317.

Examples:

United Nations intervention

Supreme Court decision

Southern Baptist Convention delegates

But: Note Latin-American in Webster’s.

FORM DEPENDENT ON MEANING

Compound Expressions Ordinarily Written as Two Words

330 If a compound expression ordinarily written as two words is preceded by an adjective that modifies the first word, no hyphen is needed.

Examples:

school student high school student

school district high school district

Compound Nouns Ordinarily Written as a Solid Word

331 If a compound noun ordinarily written as a solid word is preceded by an adjective that modifies the first part of the compound, separate the components of the compound and insert a hyphen following the adjective.

Examples:

Schoolboy high-school boy

Taxpayer income-tax payer

Schoolteacher parochial-school teacher

Compound Nouns Written as Two Words

332 If a modifier is used before a compound noun written as two words, the components of the noun are joined by a hyphen to prevent misreading.

Examples:

dress designer	famous dress-designer [He is not a designer of famous dresses.]
line design	fine line-design [If quality is being considered]

Compounds That May Change Form

333 Some otherwise permanent compounds change form according to position and meaning. The permanent compound may have to break into separate words that are treated according to their function in the sentence.

Examples:

“Greenhouse” is a solid compound noun, but note distinction:

He grew tomatoes in his greenhouse. [Compound noun]

He lived in a green house. [Adjective and noun]

“Waterfall” is a solid compound noun, but note distinction:

He saw a waterfall in the mountains. [Compound noun]

He saw a glass of water fall off the table. [Noun and verb]

Compounds That May Require a Change in Form

334 Some words may be written either as one word or as separate words, depending on the meaning.

Examples:

anyone	Did you see anyone?
any one	Any one of these is satisfactory.
Anymore	Do not send magazines anymore.
any more	Do not send any more magazines.
Anyway	I’ll come anyway.
any way	I’ll go any way you like.
Handwriting	The handwriting on the wall is plain to see.
hand writing	The hand writing on the wall is plain to see.
matter-of-fact	He is very matter-of-fact.
matter of fact	It is a matter of fact.
great-grandfather	He is a great-grandfather.
great grandfather	To the boy, he was a great grandfather.

In Apposition to a Noun

335 When an adjective plus noun compound is in apposition to a noun, no hyphen is used.

Examples:

Not: The Bible book of James was written by Jesus’ half-brother James.

But: The Bible book of James was written by Jesus’ half brother James.

Use of “Full” and the Suffix “ful”

336 Distinguish phrases like “car full of people” and “carful of people.”

Examples:

Not: The car full of people stood up. [This says that the car stood up.]

But: The carful of people stood up.

Not: Add a cup full of rye flour to the dough. [This says that the cup is added.]

But: Add a cupful of rye flour to the dough.

When a Suffix Is Added

337 A compound must be joined by a hyphen if a suffix is added.

Examples:

dessert spoon	dessert-spoonful
Measuring cup	measuring-cupful
successor trustee	successor-trusteeship

NUMBER COMPOUNDS

Cardinal Numbers

With an Adjective or Participle

338 Hyphenate a compound adjective in which one component is a cardinal number and the other an adjective or participle if misreading would result without the hyphen.

Examples:

three-tiered wedding cakes [Unspecified number of cakes with three tiers each]

three tiered wedding cakes [Three cakes, each with an unspecified number of tiers]

ten stringed harps

ten-stringed harps

six paperback books

two hardcover volumes

With a Noun

339 Always hyphenate a compound in which the first component is a cardinal number and the second a noun.

Examples:

one-class flight	65-mile-an-hour speed limit
11-inch stick	ten-pound bag
300-dollar clock	7-percent increase

340 This rule is particularly important when the noun modified is in the plural, for without the hyphen the phrase might be ambiguous. Note the difference in meaning in the examples.

Examples:

ten acre farms	ten-acre farms
two dollar tickets	two-dollar tickets

With “odd”

341 Compounds of a cardinal number with “odd” are hyphenated.

Examples:

40-odd

180-odd

Fractions

As Modifiers of Nouns

342 Hyphenate fractions used as modifiers of nouns.—See also paragraph 419.

Examples:

two-thirds majority

one-half-mile race

As Nouns

343 Fractions used as nouns are not hyphenated.—See also paragraph 419.

Examples:

three fourths of the students

one half of the states

“Of a” or “of an” Between a Fraction and a Noun

344 If the words “of a” or “of an” appear (or are understood) between a fraction and a noun, no hyphen

is used.—See also paragraph 421.

Examples:

The recipe called for two thirds cup of milk.

The highway was one fourth mile wide.

Ordinal Numbers

345 Hyphenate a compound in which one component is an ordinal number when the compound precedes the word it modifies.

Examples:

second-floor room [Room on the second floor]

fourth-grade student [Student in the fourth grade]

20th-century events [Events of the 20th century]

PHRASES

Phrases Used as Adjectives

346 Phrases used as adjectives are hyphenated when they precede the noun they modify.

Examples:

hard-to-find books

easy-to-read instructions

PREFIXES

As Found in Webster’s

347 The pattern found in Webster’s should be followed. Words that are solid will normally be treated as solid, while those that are hyphenated will normally retain the hyphen.

Deviations for Easier Reading

348 Note that in some patterns, deviations result in easier reading. This factor should be considered when a word is not found in Webster’s.—See Webster’s under “co-.”

Examples:

co-edition	co-organizer
co-owner	coauthor
codefendant	coworker

When the Second Component Is Capped

349 When the second component of a word containing a prefix is capped, the word should be hyphenated and the cap retained.

Examples:

ante-Nicene	anti-Semite
extra-Biblical	non-Biblical
non-Christian	post-Armageddon
post-Flood	pre-Christian

Words Usually Hyphenated

350 If the pattern in Webster’s shows that a word is usually hyphenated, Webster’s pattern should be followed.

Examples:

self-blessing	self-guided
self-polishing	self-restraint

Words Usually Treated as Solid

351 If the pattern in Webster’s shows that a word is usually treated as a solid word, Webster’s pattern should be followed.

Examples:

Cleanhearted	hardhearted
Postapostolic	preconvention
Prepress	prerecord

SUFFIXES

According to Webster’s

352 Suffixes defined as such in Webster’s are added without a hyphen to form a solid word according to the pattern in Webster’s.

Suffix That Creates Three Successive “I’s”

353 When a suffix beginning with the letter “1” is attached to a word ending in “11,” a hyphen is used.

Examples:

ball-like

shell-less

the Suffix “fold”

Figures

Examples:

clawlike	fatherless
dollarwise	judgeship

With

354 The suffix “fold” is hyphenated when used with figures.

Examples:

75-fold

25-fold

With Spelled-Out Numbers

355 At the end of a spelled-out number, the suffix “fold” is not preceded by a hyphen. Instead, the compound becomes a solid word.

Examples:

tenfold	a hundredfold
fivefold	a thousandfold

SUSPENDED COMPOUNDS

Adjectives With One Component in Common

356 When successive compound adjectives have one component in common, it may be omitted in all except the last. The hyphen is then retained in each one.

Examples:

first-, second-, and third-grade students

second- and third-degree burns

Expressions to Be Avoided

357 Avoid expressions like the following.

Examples:

Not: copper and glassware

But: copperware and glassware

Not: gold and silversmith

But: goldsmith and silversmith

TWO NOUNS OF EQUAL VALUE

358 Use a hyphen between two nouns used together to indicate that the person or thing referred to partakes of the character of both nouns.

Examples:

secretary-treasurer

king-priest

Topics Considered

Italics Purpose of Italics

Audiovisual

Emphasis

Added to Quotes

Italics in Other Bible Translations

Compound of Foreign Word With English

Foreign Words

Exception to Webster’s

Short Quotation in a Foreign Language

Words Not Listed in Main Section of Webster’s

Letters or Numbers

In Algebraic Equations

In Parentheses and After Verse Numbers

In Sentences

Reference to an Accompanying Illustration

Names in the Title of a Court Case

Style

Within an Italic Block of Text

Within a Sans Serif Block of Text

Titles of Publications

Bible Translator’s Name in Place of the Title

Computer Programs

Embodying the word “Bible”

Foreign Title With Translated Title

News services

Newspapers

Opening Article Following a Possessive

Plurals of Titles of Society’s Publications

Quotes That Are Part of a Title

Recordings

Sacred Writings

“The” as the First Word in a Title

Titles Having Punctuation

When a Title Is Abridged

With Margin, Marginal, and Footnote

Vehicles

Space Satellites

303 The purpose of the hyphen is to prevent misreading. To that end, the three most important functions of the hyphen are

Italics

PURPOSE OF ITALICS

359 Italics are primarily used for emphasis, foreign words, names of vehicles, and titles of publications, motion pictures, television series, and other literary and artistic works.

AUDIOVISUAL

360 The titles of plays, motion pictures, operas, television series, dramas, and other audiovisual presentations are italicized.—See also paragraph 374.

Examples:

I went to see the play Oklahoma! last week.

The Society released a motion picture called Heritage.

One convention drama was entitled Why Respect Theocratic Arrangements?

The first video that the Society produced was Jehovah’s Witnesses—The Organization Behind the Name.

I went with my parents to a showing of the “Photo-Drama of Creation.” [Considered a talk]

EMPHASIS

361 Italics may be used to emphasize a word or a phrase. When used too freely for this purpose, however, they lose their force.—See also paragraph 218.

Examples:

Prayer is directed through Jesus, not to him.

Christian subjection to human rule is a relative subjection.

Added to Quotes

362 When italics are added to quoted material, the quotation should be followed by the statement “Italics ours.” The style for Scripture citations is used—within the paragraph, the statement is placed within parentheses; at the end of the paragraph, the statement follows an em dash.

Examples:

Regarding writing, the book Words Into Type says the following: “Precision, freshness, appropriate use, sensitivity to idiom—these are qualities that writers must patiently seek.... The responsibility for appropriate use of words lies with the writer, but the editor can assist in eliminating violations and lapses.”—Italics ours.

“... The responsibility for appropriate use of words lies with the writer. ” (Italics ours.) The book acknowledges that the editor might be of assistance in this regard.

“... The responsibility for appropriate use of words lies with the writer, but the editor can assist in eliminating violations and lapses.” (Italics ours.)—Proverbs 25:11.

He writes: “A bishop must be above reproach, the husband of one wife. ”—Italics ours; 1 Timothy 3:2, Revised Standard Version, Catholic Edition.

Italics in Other Bible Translations

363 Italics in other Bible translations are not retained when quoted in text.

Examples:

Not: “One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh.”—KJ.

But: “One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh.”—KJ.

New World Translation

364 Italics may be added in text from the New World Translation without the notation “Italics ours.”—See also paragraph 494.

Example:

“In the beginning the Word was, and the Word was with God, and the Word was a God.”— John 1:1.

FOREIGN WORDS

Compound of Foreign Word With English

365 In a compound consisting of a foreign word with an English word, the foreign word is italic, but the English word remains roman.

Examples:

pa-rou-si a-oriented

ag-a'pe-based

Exception to Webster’s

366 Retain ag-a ^rpe andpa-rou-si 'a in italics to indicate that they are transliterations and to disassociate them from Webster’s definition.

Examples:

In Greek the highest form of love is ag-a'pe.

Pa-rou-si’a literally means a “being with,” that is, a “presence.”

Short Quotation in a Foreign Language

367 A short quotation in a foreign language is set in italics. It requires quotation marks.—See also paragraph 463.

Examples:

Some have said that during Constantine’s campaign against Maxentius, a flaming cross appeared in the heavens bearing the words “In hoc signo vinces. ”

The Auschwitz and Sachsenhausen camps had the sign “Arbeit Macht Frei. ”

Words Not Listed in Main Section of Webster’s

368 Foreign words or phrases that are not listed in Webster’s are italicized each time they are used in roman text. In italic text they are placed in quotes.

Examples:

Hence, a-na 'stasis literally means a “raising up,” or “rising,” referring to resurrection.

In the Greek text, por-nei 'a is found in 25 places.

Penicillin is produced by various molds of the genus Penicillium.

369 Italics should not be used for foreign proper names.

Examples:

Arc de Triomphe

Musée de Louvre

LETTERS OR NUMBERS

In Algebraic Equations

370 Letters in algebraic equations are italicized.

Examples:

E=mc

x²+y²=z²

In Parentheses and After Verse Numbers

371 Letters of the alphabet in parentheses are roman, as are letters after the number of a verse or a page that indicate a fractional part.

Example:

(a) In contrast to the nations, in whom do Jehovah’s Witnesses trust? (b) Why do Gog and his mob become enraged?

Daniel 9:26a

Page 673b

In Sentences

372 Use italics for single letters that act as parts of speech in sentences.

Example:

Sadly, one D showed up on his report card.

The letter T is the first character on car-service license plates in New York City.

Reference to an Accompanying Illustration

373 Use italics when referring to the identifying letters or numbers that appear in an accompanying illustration.

Example:

In the accompanying illustration, A is ..., while B represents ...

MUSICAL WORKS

374 Titles of songs and other musical works are set in roman and are quoted.—See also paragraph 360.

Examples:

Song number 146 is “Flee to God’s Kingdom!”

I listened to “Oklahoma!” on CD last night.

PUNCTUATION

375 Marks of punctuation (with the exception of brackets and parentheses, which are never italicized) that are part of italic text are italicized.

SPECIAL USAGE

Credit Lines

376 Credit lines appearing at the end of a magazine article are italicized. If they appear at the beginning of an article, they are roman.

Examples:

... my view of things will certainly never be the same again.—Contributed.

And for those of you who want a relationship with Jehovah but don’t think that you can make the necessary changes, note Jesus’ encouraging words: “With God all things are possible.” (Matthew 19:26)—As told by David L. Wirges.

Jehovah Proved to Be With Me As told by Max Henning

Tiger! Tiger! By a correspondent in India

Names in the Title of a Court Case

377 The entire title of a court case is italicized, including the names of the parties and the “v. ” between them.—See also paragraph 27.

Examples:

The flag-salute issue as it related to the schoolchildren of Jehovah’s Witnesses first reached the American courts in 1935 in the case of Carlton B. Nicholls v. Mayor and School Committee of Lynn (Massachusetts).

STYLE

Within an Italic Block of Text

378 In an italic block of text, quotes are used for words that would be italic in a roman block of text. (This does not apply to words that would be italic for emphasis.) If quotes form part of a title, no quotes are added.

Examples:

"Awake! ” readily acknowledges that Hitler had many political opponents.

According to the book "Mormon Doctrine, ” by Bruce R. McConkie, Adam was incapable of having children prior to his sin.

We are using the "All Scripture ” book in the school this year.

Within a Sans Serif Block of Text

379 Certain sans serif fonts do not have a true italic member. To present an italic appearance, the characters are slanted when typeset. All the rules for italics apply to these slanted forms.

Examples:

In his book Galaxies, Ferris explains that the photos of faint, distant objects are time exposures.

Since a depressed person’s thoughts are often of future disasters or past attacks, he may try concentrating on the present situation.

TITLES OF PUBLICATIONS

380 Titles of publications in text in serif fonts are set in italics. This rule applies to the complete title as well as to any shortened form and to the mnemonic symbol.—See also paragraphs 31, 379.

Examples:

1998 Yearbook of Jehovah’s Witnesses

Yearbook, Yearbooks, yb-E

Why You Can Trust the Bible (T-13)

1998 Watchtower bound volumes

Watch Tower Publications Index 1930-1985

dx 86-95-E

Kingdom News No. 35

Bible Translator’s Name in Place of the Title

381 When the name of the translator is used in place of the title, it is italicized, but when reference is made to the translator himself, his name is not italicized.

Examples:

“I will make it a hurly-burly, hurly-burly, hurly-burly.”—Ezekiel 21:27, Byington.

Byington’s translation was published by the Society in 1972.

Computer Programs

382 The names of computer programs are italicized.

Examples:

Microsoft Word

Lotus Notes

Watchtower Library—1995 Edition

Embodying the Word “Bible”

383 When the word “Bible” is part of the name of a translation, the entire title, including the word “Bible,” is italicized. When the word “Bible” has been added to the name of a translation, the entire title is set roman. The same rule applies to the use of the words “version” and “translation.”

Examples:

The Jerusalem Bible

King James Version

King James version of the Bible

New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures

Septuagint

Greek Septuagint

Greek Septuagint version

Simple English translation

Foreign Title With Translated Title

384 When both the foreign title and the translated title of a publication are given, the foreign title is italicized and the translated title follows in parentheses in roman. The translated title is set cap and lowercase according to our style for titles.

Example:

The book L ’occasione e I’uotno ladro (The Opportunity and the Thief) said that the number of crimes against property in Italy had “reached peaks once considered impossible.”

News Services

385 The names of news-service organizations are not italicized.

Examples:

Associated Press	Scripps Howard News Service
Reuters	United Press International

Newspapers

386 Italicize the entire name of a newspaper, even when it includes the name of a city.

Examples:

The New York Times

the New York Daily News [City name not part of title]

The Times of London [Not, The London Times]

Opening Article Following a Possessive

387 An opening article in a title is dropped following a possessive.

Examples:

New York’s Wall Street Journal

Douglas’ New Bible Dictionary

Plurals of Titles of Society’s Publications

388 When the title of one of the Society’s publications, such as the Index or the Yearbook, is used in plural, it is italic, including the plural ending. Plurals of titles are regularly formed by adding “s” or “es” to the title. In titles ending in “y,” the “y” is not changed to “i” as in common nouns. The plural is formed by adding “s.” This rule holds for proper nouns in general.—See also paragraph 85.

Examples:

As the first step, check the Society’s Indexes.

How many Yearbooks should we order?

Several Our Kingdom Ministries have discussed street witnessing.

Quotes That Are Part of a Title

389 Quotes are italicized when they are part of the title.

Examples:

Worldwide Security Under the “Prince of Peace”

“All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial”

“All Scripture ” book

Recordings

390 The titles of recordings of any type are italicized.—See also paragraph 503.

Examples:

The Second to the Corinthians, To the Galatians

Kingdom Melodies No. 5

Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life— On Audiocassette

Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life— On Videocassette

Singing Kingdom Songs— On Compact Disc

Sacred Writings

391 The names of sacred writings are not italicized.

Examples:

Bible	Koran
Mishnah	Talmud
The Vedas	The Five Classics

“The” as the First Word in a Title

392 The word “the” is capped and italicized when it is the first word of a title of a publication that is used as a noun. It is lowercased and roman when the title is used as an adjective.

Examples:

He is reading The Watchtower.

He is reading the Watchtower magazine.

The Times of India described the terrible earthquake.

According to the Times report, relief arrived quickly.

Titles Having Punctuation

393 Punctuation that forms part of a title is italicized.

Examples:

The Bible—God’s Word or Man’s?

Revelation—Its Grand Climax At Hand!

“Look! I Am Making All Things New”

394 Some titles have closing punctuation. When the title falls at the end of a sentence, the title punctuation forms the closing punctuation of the sentence itself. If the title falls at the end of a question and the closing title punctuation is not a question mark, a question mark is added following the closing title punctuation.

Examples:

The battle of Armageddon is explained in graphic detail in the book “Babylon the Great Has Fallen!” God’s Kingdom Rules!

Have you read the latest issue of Awake!?

When a Title Is Abridged

395 If a title is abridged, an opening article should be omitted or left outside the italics.

Example:

According to The World Book Encyclopedia, “tribe is a term used to describe certain human social groups. Many of the peoples called tribes consider the term offensive or inaccurate.” The World Book further states that “most prefer such terms as ethnic group, nation, or people.”

With Margin, Marginal, and Footnote

396 The words “margin,” “marginal,” and “footnote” are roman.

Examples:

The Syriac New Testament, margin

Luke 17:21, marginal reading

Ephesians 6:11, footnote

VEHICLES

397 The names of waterborne vessels, submarines, airships, airplanes (but not the type of plane), manned spacecraft, and trains are italicized.

Examples:

The aircraft carrier Intrepid is now a museum.

The first nuclear-powered submarine was named Nautilus, after its namesake in the Jules Verne novel.

With the fiery demise of the dirigible Hindenburg, the era of rigid airships came to an end.

Charles Lindbergh is famous for his solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic in the monoplane Spirit of St. Louis.

The Boeing 747 jumbo jet is used extensively on transpacific flights.

The Russian space station Mir has hosted astronauts from many nations.

The space shuttle Columbia was the first spacecraft that could be reused.

One of the most famous trains of all time was the fabled Orient Express.

Space Satellites

398 The names of space satellites are not italicized.

Examples:

Space imaging of earth’s oceans began with SEASAT.

Early Bird was the first satellite of the INTELSAT system.

Topics Considered

Numbers Basic Rules

Numbers Under 11

Numbers Under 11 With Larger Numbers

Ordinals

Specific and Round Numbers

Hundred, Thousand, Million, Billion

Inexact Numbers in Figures

Specific and Round Numbers Over Ten

General U sage

Abbreviations and Symbols

Addresses

Large Numbers at the Beginning of a Sentence

B.C.E. and C.E. Dates in the Same Sentence

Distinguishing Between Length and Area

Area

Length

Hyphenating Fractions When Expressed in Words

Preferable Form

Usage: “of a” or “of an”

Usage: “th” or “ths”

When to Spell Out Fractions

Money

Dollars With No Cents

Foreign Currency

Less Than a Dollar

Money Terms Wherein Symbols Are Used

“One”

Page Numbers

Percent

Ratios and Proportions

References

Scientific and Technical Writing

When Not to Use “A.M.” or “P.M.”

Two Separate Figures

Connected Numbers

Numbering of Publication Elements

Under 20

Higher Than 19

Three or More Digits

Second Having More Digits Than the First

Two Year Numbers That Are Connected

Connected Numbers of Different Classes

Successive Divisions of Time

With “From” or “Between”

Verse Numbers

With B.C.E. or C.E

End-of-Line Division

Numbers of Five or More Digits

Plurals of Figures

Contraction of Figure for Years

Verbs With Number Terms

Expressions of Amount

Verbs and the Word “Number”

BASIC RULES

Numbers Under 11

399 Numbers under 11 are spelled out.

Examples:

In Israel under the Law covenant, two witnesses, or even three, were required to establish a matter before the judges.

Jehovah chastised Israel seven times by sending the nation into captivity in Babylon.

Numbers Under 11 With Larger Numbers

400 Numbers under 11 (with the exception of the number “one”) are changed to figures when they occur in the same sentence with numbers larger than 10 and refer to similar things.

Examples:

At the three circuit assemblies, 18 sisters and 9 brothers were baptized.

The couple had three children, an 8-year-old, a 12-year-old, and a 14-year-old.

In the two baskets, there were 5 apples and 12 oranges.

Of the 12 apostles, one was unfaithful.

Of the 12 tribes, 2 remained loyal to the house of David, while the others seceded to set up their own kingdom.

Ordinals

401 Ordinals of numbers 11 and over are written in figures. The suffixes added are st, nd, rd, or th.

Examples:

John the Baptizer began preaching in the 15th year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.

Brooklyn Bethelites receive their reimbursement on the fifth day of each month.

Specific and Round Numbers

Hundred, Thousand, Million, Billion

402 If the numbers “hundred,” “thousand,” “million,” and “billion” are preceded by the word “a,” the number may be spelled out in text.

Example:

Over a period of three years, a million new Witnesses of Jehovah were baptized.

403 If the numbers “hundred,” “thousand,” “million,” and “billion” are used in combination and preceded by the word “a,” the full number may be spelled out in text. If preceded by a number that is ten or under, the full number may be spelled out in text. If over ten, figures should be used.

Examples:

Bangladesh has a population of over a hundred million.

Barak led ten thousand men to victory over Sisera.

Gideon’s three hundred men sounded like a huge army.

The observable universe has over a hundred billion galaxies.

Well over 540 million magazines were distributed during the service year.

Some six billion people now inhabit the earth.

Inexact Numbers in Figures

404 When a round number is written in figures, the context should make it clear that the number is not exact. Such words as “about,” “over,” “some,” and “nearly” may be used. Do not use “around.”

Examples:

Some 8,000 happy Witnesses attended the convention.

At the turn of the century, the Kingdom was being preached in nearly 30 countries. Now there are Witnesses in over 230 lands.

Specific and Round Numbers Over Ten

405 Specific and round numbers over ten are written in figures.

Examples:

Ahasuerus ruled over 127 jurisdictional districts.

At one time the resurrected Jesus appeared to upwards of 500 disciples.

GENERAL USAGE

Abbreviations and Symbols

406 Regardless of their size, numbers used with abbreviations and symbols are written in figures.

Examples:

527 K	35°C.	5 mg
7 mph	9 cu ft	No. 3

Addresses

407 Numbers that identify streets and avenues, box numbers, house numbers, apartment numbers, and ZIP codes are always written in figures.—See also paragraph 238.

Examples:

3rd Avenue

West 35th Street

25 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, NY 11201-2483

P.O. Box 2204

Apartment 1303

Beginning a Sentence

408 A figure should not begin a sentence. A number so placed should be spelled out or the sentence reworded to place the number elsewhere in the sentence.

Examples:

Not: $36,000 was the amount of the debt.

But: The amount of the debt was $36,000.

Not: 1914 saw the end of the Gentile Times.

But: The year 1914 saw the end of the Gentile Times.

Not: 1 Kings gives a detailed description of the prosperity of Israel under the rule of Solomon.

But: First Kings gives a detailed description of the prosperity of Israel under the rule of Solomon.

Or: The prosperity of Israel under the rule of Solomon is described in detail in 1 Kings.

Large Numbers at the Beginning of a Sentence

409 If for some reason a number must be used to begin a sentence, the preferred style for large numbers is as follows:

Examples:

Not: Seventy-five hundred

But: Seven thousand five hundred

Not: One hundred twenty.

But: One hundred and twenty

Two Related Numbers at the Beginning of a Sentence

410 If two related numbers occur at the beginning of a sentence, only the first need be spelled out. It may be better to reword the sentence.

Examples:

Fifty-four brothers, 76 sisters, and 22 children attended the meeting at the Kingdom Hall.

Or: The meeting was attended by 54 brothers, 76 sisters, and 22 children.

Dates

411 References to dates are always written in figures, and when following a month, cardinal numbers are used. Otherwise, ordinal numbers are used.—See also paragraph 15.

Examples:

April 11, 1998	11th of April, 1998
15 th of the month

B.C.E. and C.E. Dates in the Same Sentence

412 When B.C.E. and C.E. dates are used in the same sentence, the dates should include these abbreviations every time.

Examples:

Not: From 30 B.C.E. to 42

But: From 30 B.C.E. to 42 C.E.

B.C.E. Dates Only

413 When only B.C.E. dates are used, the abbreviation should be used every time. When a span of years is given, the abbreviation should follow the expression. It should not appear with each year figure.

Examples:

Not: 1512 B.C.E.-1473 B.C.E.

But: 1512-1473 B.C.E.

C.E. Dates Only

414 When only C.E. dates are used, the abbreviation is not used with dates of four digits.

Examples:

Not: From 1914 to 1918 C.E.

But: From 1914 to 1918

Nonspecific Dates

415 When references are made to centuries, the context determines whether C.E. or B.C.E. needs to be included.

Dimensions

416 Dimensions under 11 are spelled out unless figures are used in the same sentence for other measures. The word “by” is usually preferable, but the symbol “x” may sometimes be more appropriate, especially when the sign for inches or feet is used; when the sign is used, it should appear with both figures.

Examples:

24” x 3”	5 ft 4 in.
64 feet 10 inches	five feet four inches
three- by five-inch cards	two by four inches

Averaging 6 feet in height, the tunnel was 1,749 feet long.

The station’s radio towers were over 200 feet high, and they had three sets of guy wires. I sat on a three-foot-long by eight-inch-wide board while a coworker hoisted me up.

Distinguishing Between Length and Area

Area

417 A reference embodying a unit of measure preceded by “square,” such as “square feet,” refers to the area enclosed by a boundary.

Examples:

New Bethel homes are designed with a standard room size of about 350 square feet.

It would require 7,000 square meters of land each year.

Length

418 A reference embodying a unit of measure followed by “square,” such as “feet square,” refers to the length measurement of the sides of a square.

Examples:

Heavenly New Jerusalem is a perfect cube 12,000 furlongs in perimeter, making the ground plan 4,000 furlongs square.

The bays of factory building 3 are 20 feet square.

Fractions

Hyphenating Fractions When Expressed in Words

419 Fractions expressed in words are governed by the same rules as other compounds; as nouns they are not hyphenated, whereas as adjectives they are.—See also paragraphs 342-3.

Examples:

three fourths of the total

three-fourths share

two thirds of the members

two-thirds majority

Preferable Form

420 Where possible, fractions should be expressed in words or as decimals. The fraction 1/100 written in words should be written “one hundredth” rather than “one one-hundredth,” 7/100 as “seven hundredths” rather than “seven one-hundredths.”

Examples:

Not: 1/2 of 1 percent

But: 0.5 percent

Not: 51/2 million

But: 5.5 million

Usage: “of a” or “of an”

421 A fraction expressed in figures should not be followed by “of a” or “of an.”—See also paragraph

344.

Examples:

Not: 3/8 of an inch

But: 3/8 inch

Usage: “th” or “ths”

422 Do not use “th” or “ths” as suffixes of fractions expressed in figures.

Examples:

Not: 3/100ths

But: 3/100

Not: l/25th

But: 1/25

When to Spell Out Fractions

423 If the sentence seems to require “of a,” the fraction should be spelled out.

Examples:

Not: To make unleavened bread, use 34 of a cup of whole wheat flour and 134 cups of water.

But: To make unleavened bread, use three quarters of a cup of whole wheat flour and one and

three quarters cups of water. [In the second example, note that since the form “three quarters” is used, the form “one and three quarters” is used for the sake of consistency.]

Money

Dollars With No Cents

424 A sum of dollars with no cents is expressed without the decimal point and ciphers; if a sum of dollars and cents is used in the same context, ciphers are used with the sum of even dollars.

Examples:

Only $5-$ 10 was involved. [Note two dollar signs.]

One owed $5.00, the other $5.45.

Foreign Currency

425 See Webster’s for foreign currency.

Less Than a Dollar

426 Mention of a sum less than a dollar is expressed as cents.

Examples:

Not: $0.75

But: 750

Or: 75 cents

Money Terms Wherein Symbols Are Used

427 Use figures for all money terms wherein symbols are used. Where currency is written out, follow number rule.

Examples:

$486

The monthly service charge is two dollars.

The monthly service charge is 19 dollars.

“One”

428 The number “one” is spelled out in text except when it refers to percent, is used with a symbol, is used in expressing a ratio, or is used in references.

Examples:

Of the 13 publishers, one was a pioneer.

Heart patients should drink 1-percent milk or skim milk.

The explanation is found in Chapter 1.

Page Numbers

429 Figures are always used for page numbers, including page numbers under 11.

Examples:

This was further clarified in the publication What Has Religion Done for Mankind?, pages 8-10.

These customs reflect a memory of the destruction caused by the Deluge.—The Worship of the Dead, by Colonel J. Gamier, pages 3-8.

Percent

430 Figures always precede the word “percent.”

Examples:

12.3 percent

Not: ten percent

But: 10 percent

Not: 21/4 percent

But: 2.25 percent

Not: 1/2 of 1 percent

But: 0.5 percent

Ratios and Proportions

431 Figures are used to specify ratios and proportions.

Examples:

There was 1 publisher for every 347 of the population.

Of all the publishers, 1 out of 7 was in the pioneer work.

In 1997, only 1 person was baptized for every 13 Bible studies conducted.

References

432 References are indicated by superior numbers in sequence regardless of whether a number appears in text or in artwork associated with text. The list of references, or bibliography, that appears at the end of the text should have corresponding numbers in sequence. Superior numbers for footnotes or for bibliographic references are written as figures and should appear outside commas, colons, and periods.—See also paragraphs 435, 479.

Examples:

“Where the Bible and the maps are at odds, we opt for The Book.”¹⁹

Kurt and Barbara Aland, scholars of the Greek text of the Bible, list almost 5,000 manuscripts that have survived from antiquity down to today.⁸ Additionally, there are many ancient translations—the earliest dating to about the year 180 C.E.—that help to prove that the text is accurate.⁹

Scientific and Technical Writing

433 In scientific and technical writing, figures may be used for numbers under 11.

Example:

You will need 7 megabytes of free space on the hard disk.

Subdivisions of Text

434 The numbers assigned to subdivisions of text (sections, chapters, paragraphs, lines, verses) are written in figures.

Examples:

column 3	line 10
Psalm 23	question 2
Song 49	verses 6 to 8

Superior Numbers

435 Superior and inferior numbers that are part of text are set inside the punctuation.—See also paragraphs 432,479.

Examples:

Einstein’s formula is: E=mc².

Nori is one of the few foods that is rich in vitamin B¹².

Time of Day

Approximate Time

436 In text, it is usually better to express an approximate time of day in words. With “o’clock,” however, follow the number rule.—See also paragraph 48.

Examples:

11 o’clock	half past one
quarter to 12	ten o’clock
from daybreak till noon

Exact Time

437 For exact time use figures, including ciphers for even hours, and a.m. and p.m. as required.—See also paragraph 47.

Examples:

The meeting lasted until noon.

The office is closed from 12:00 noon to 1:15 p.m.

Watchtower shuttle service stops at midnight.

Watchtower shuttle service is available from 5:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight.

Take the 11:28 from Grand Central.

When Not to Use “A.M.” or “P.M.”

438 Do not use a.m. or p.m. with “in the morning,” “in the afternoon,” or “o’clock.”

Examples:

Not: I wake up at 6 a.m. every morning.

But: I wake up at six o’clock every morning.

Or: I wake up at 6:00 a.m. every day.

Not: By ten o’clock a.m., these workers alone contributed close to one ton of clothing.

But: By ten o’clock in the morning, these workers alone contributed close to one ton of clothing.

Or: By 10:00 a.m., these workers alone contributed close to one ton of clothing.

Two Separate Figures

439 When two separate figures appear together and are not separated by punctuation, use an alternate style for one or reword the sentence. The sentence should also be reworded if either figure contains punctuation.—See also paragraph 237.

Examples:

12 four-foot boards

sixty-eight 33-rpm records

Not: 12 50-cent stamps

But: twelve 50-cent stamps

Not: seven five-cent stamps

But: seven 5-cent stamps

Not: In 1997,14,322,226 attended the Memorial worldwide.

But: In 1997 the worldwide Memorial attendance was 14,322,226.

Not: Can you add 15 12-digit numbers in 20 seconds?

But: Can you add 15 numbers of 12 digits in 20 seconds?

CONNECTED NUMBERS

Numbering of Publication Elements

440 Publications may be structured using numbered elements, such as paragraphs, pages, chapters, sections and volumes. When two such numbers are connected, omissions may be made according to the rules in paragraphs 441-4.

Under 20

441 Connected numbers of two digits each and under 20 should be given in full.

Examples:

7-13

15-18

Higher Than 19

442 If two numbers of two digits each and higher than 19 are connected, the tens are omitted from the second unless the second ends in a cipher, in which case the full number must be repeated.

Examples:

| 20-8 | 30-1 | 74-80

Second Having More Digits Than the First

443 Connected numbers in which the second has more digits than the first should be given in full.

Examples:

52-558

120-144,000

Note: 3,000,000-5,000,000

Three or More Digits

444 If two numbers of three or more digits are connected, the digits common to both starting from the left are omitted from the second unless one number ends in two or more ciphers, in which case the full number must be repeated.

Examples:

1000-1012	1211-311	162-200
173-96	188-9	200-223
3333-43	356-76	500-501

Two Year Numbers That Are Connected

445 If two year numbers are connected, the hundreds are omitted from the second unless one of the numbers ends in two ciphers, in which case the full number must be repeated. In such omissions a hyphen should be used.

Examples:

1775-79	1895-1900
1800-1801	1904-7

Connected Numbers of Different Classes

446 When two numbers of different classes are connected, use an en dash instead of a hyphen.

Examples:

Daniel 6:1-7:13 [verse to chapter]

June 28-July 1 [day to month]

2 B.C.E.-29 C.E. [change of era]

Successive Divisions of Time

447 When separating successive divisions (as months or years) of time, a slash is used. The numerals denoting the division of time may be elided according to the rules given in paragraphs 445-6.

Examples:

It was in “the eighth month in the second year of Darius” (October/November 520 B.C.E.) that temple building was resumed.

A month on the Hebrew lunar calendar overlaps two months on the Gregorian calendar, the month Chislev, for example, corresponding to 30 days of November/December.

The 1998/99 “God’s Way of Life” Conventions began in May 1998.

With “From” or “Between”

448 Do not use a hyphen when the year numbers are preceded by the word “from” or “between.”

Examples:

from 1892 to 1898

between 1955 and 1960

Verse Numbers

449 When two verse numbers are connected, they are given in full and omissions are not allowed.

Examples:

Matthew 24:45-47

1 Corinthians 13:4-8

With B.C.E. or C.E.

450 Do not omit figures for connected years when B.C.E. or C.E. are used.

Examples:

440-421 B.C.E.

133-156 C.E.

END-OF-LINE DIVISION

Numbers of Five or More Digits

451 If necessary, a number consisting of five or more digits may be divided at the end of a line, using a hyphen. The division should always be made at a comma, and the comma should be retained before the hyphen.

Example:

During 1997, average home Bible studies exceeded 4,550,-000 per month.

Most astronomers believe that there are more than 100,-000,000,000 galaxies in the known universe.

PLURALS OF FIGURES

452 Plurals of figures are formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s.

Examples:

Boeing 747’s are very popular for transoceanic flights.

During the early part of the 1950’s, there was very low inflation.

The man was in his 70’s.

Contraction of Figure for Years

453 If the plural figure for a year is presented as a contraction, the first two digits are replaced by an apostrophe and the “’s” of plurality is retained.—See also paragraph 58.

Examples:

’50’s (1950’s)

’70’s (1970’s)

VERBS WITH NUMBER TERMS

Expressions of Amount

454 Time, distance, weight, money, and measure are singular when the amount is regarded as a whole. These expressions are plural when the units of the amount are regarded separately.

Examples:

Two hours seems to a child to be a long time to sit still.

Five miles is not very far to walk. [But: The last five miles were the longest of our trip.]

Three and two is five.

Ten dollars is too much to pay for that necktie. [But: There were 10 one-dollar bills in the wallet.]

Nine inches is one fourth of a yard.

Fractions

455 Fractions take a singular verb if the object of the following “of” phrase is singular; they take a plural verb if the object of the following “of” phrase is plural.

Examples:

Two thirds of the book of Romans has been covered.

One third of the publishers have been pioneering.

Verbs and the Word “Number”

456 The word “number” may take a singular or a plural verb, depending on usage. When preceded by the word “the,” the word “number” is singular. When preceded by the word “a,” it is plural.

Examples:

A number in our congregation are auxiliary pioneering.

The number of pioneers is growing.

Topics Considered

Quotes

Purpose of Quotes

Art Objects

Direct Quotes

Articles (Part of Speech)

Brackets and Parentheses in a Quoted Source

Foreign Language Quotations

Interruption of Quoted Speech

Interviews

More Than One Paragraph

Part of Text

Quoted Text Having Closing Punctuation

Quotes From Different Sources

Indirect Quotes and Statements

Indirect Quotes

Indirect Statements

Quote Rules With Certain Expressions

When Quoting a Source

Questions

Quotes With Other Punctuation

Footnote Symbols and Reference Markers

Citing Different Translations

Diacritics

Expressions

Awake! and Publications for Public Distribution

The Watchtower and Internal Publications

Headings