A Study Guide for God’s Word

© 2015

WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA

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July 2015 Printing

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Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the modern-language New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.

Photo Credits:

Cover and page 1728: Shrine of the Book, Photo © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Page 1734:

© The British Library Board (G.12161)

Page 1738:

Left: From the book

A Pre-Massoretic Biblical Papyrus, by Stanley A. Cook, M. A. (1903)

Page 1739:

From The Codex Alexandrinus in Reduced Photographic Facsimile, 1909, by permission of the British Library

A Study Guide for God’s Word

English (sgd-E)

Made in the United States of

America

Principles of Bible Translation

The Bible was originally written in ancient Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. Today it is available in whole or in part in about 2,600 languages. The vast majority of people who read the Bible do not understand the original languages and therefore must rely on a translation. What principles should guide how the Bible is translated, and how did these govern the rendering of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures?

Some might conclude that a strict, word-for-word, interlinear-style translation would enable the reader to get closest to what was expressed in the original languages. However, that is not always the case. Consider a few of the reasons:

• • No two languages are exactly alike in grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure. A professor of Hebrew, S. R. Driver, wrote that languages “differ not only in grammar and roots, but also ... in the manner in which ideas are built up into a sentence.” Different languages require quite different thought patterns. “Consequently,” continues Professor Driver, “the forms taken by the sentence in different languages are not the same.”

• • No modern language exactly mirrors the vocabulary and grammar of Biblical Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, so a word-for-word translation of the Bible could be unclear or at times could even convey the wrong meaning.

• • The meaning of a word or an expression may vary depending on the context in which it is used.

A translator may be able to mirror the literal rendering of the original language in some passages, but this must be done very carefully.

Here are some examples of how word-for-word translation can be misunderstood:

• • The Scriptures use the expressions “sleep” and “fall asleep” to refer both to physical sleep and to the sleep of death. (Matthew 28:13; Acts 7:60) When these expressions are used in contexts that refer to death, Bible translators can use such wording as “fall asleep in death,” which helps the modern reader avoid confusion.—1 Corinthians 7:39; 1 Thessalonians 4:13; 2 Peter 3:4.

• • The apostle Paul used an expression found at Ephesians 4:14 that can be literally translated “in the playing of dice of men.” This ancient idiom alludes to the practice of cheating others when using dice. In most languages, a literal renderi ng of this allusion makes little sense. Translating this expression as “the trickery of men” is a clearer way to convey the meaning.

• • At Romans 12:11, a Greek expression is used that literally means “to the spirit boiling.” This wording does not convey the intended meaning in English, so it is rendered “aglow with the spirit” in this translation.

• • During his famous Sermon on the Mount, Jesus used an expression that is often translated “Blessed are the poor in spirit.” (Matthew 5:3, King James Version) But in many languages, a literal rendering of this expression is obscure. In some cases, a strictly literal translation could imply that “the poor in spirit” are mentally unbalanced or lacking in vital ity and determination. However, Jesus was here teaching people that their happiness depended, not on satisfying their physical needs, but on recognizing their need for God’s guidance. (Luke 6:20) Thus, such renderings as “those conscious of their spiritual need” or “those who know their need for God” convey more accurately the meaning of the original expression.—Mat-thew 5:3; The New Testament in Modern English.

  oinTcoxoi Ta> nN eyM ATI

  MATTHEW 5:3

  Litera l English: “the poor in spirit”

  Idea: “those conscious of their spiritual need”

  
  

• • In many contexts, the Hebrew word translated “jealousy” corresponds to the common meaning of the English word, namely, to feel anger over the apparent unfaithfulness of a close associate or to envy others for their possessions. (Proverbs 6:34; Isaiah 11:13) However, the same Hebrew word also has a positive connotation. For example, it may be used of the “zeal,” or protective ardor, that Jehovah shows for his servants or of his “requiring excl usive devotion.” (Exodus 34: 14; 2 Kings 19:31; Ezekiel 5:13; Zechariah 8:2) It may also be used of the “zeal” that his faithful servants have for God and his worship or of their ‘tolerating no rivalry’ toward him. —Psalm 69:9; 119:139; Numbers 25:11.

• • The Hebrew expression that usually refers to the human hand has a wide variety of meanings. Depending on the context, this word may be rendered “authority,” “generosity,” or “power.” (2 Samuel 8:3; 1 Kings 10:13; Proverbs 18:21) In fact, this particular word is translated over 40 different ways in the English edition of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.

  V

  The Hebrew word yadh is usually rendered “hand,” but depending on the context, this word may be rendered “authority,” “generosity,” “power,” and many other ways

  
  

In view of these factors, Bible translation involves more than simply rendering an original-language word with the same term each time it occurs. A translator must use good judgment in order to select words in the target language that best represent the ideas of the original-language text. In addition, there is a need to structure the sentences in a way that conforms to the rules of grammar of the target language, making the text easy to read.

At the same time, extremes in rewording the text must be avoided. A translator who liberally paraphrases the Bible according to how he interprets the overall idea could distort the meaning of the text. How so? The translator may erroneously insert his opinion of what the original text means or may omit important details contained in the original text. So while paraphrases of the

Bible may be easy to read, their very freeness at times may prevent the reader from getting the true message of the text.

Doctrinal bias can easi ly color a translator’s work. For example, Matthew 7:13 says: “Spacious is the road leading off into destruction.” Some translators, perhaps affected by doctrinal bias, have used the term “hell” rather than what the Greek term really means, namely, “destruction.”

A Bible translator must also consider that the Bible was written using the common, everyday language of average people, such as farmers, shepherds, and fishermen. (Nehemiah 8:8, 12; Acts 4:13) Therefore, a good translation of the Bible makes the message it contains understandable to sincere people, regardless of their background. Clear, common, readily understood expressions are preferred over terms that are rarely used by the average person.

Quite a number of Bible translators have taken the unjustifiable liberty of omitting God’s name, Jehovah, from modern translations even though that name is found in ancient Bible manuscripts. (See Appendix A4.) Many translations replace the name with a title, such as “Lord,” and some even obscure the fact that God has a name. For example, in some translations, Jesus’ prayer recorded at John 17:26 reads: “I made you known to them,” and at John 17:6, “I have revealed you to those whom you gave me.” However, a faithful rendering of Jesus’ prayer reads: “I have made your name known to them,” and “I have made your name manifest to the men whom you gave me.”

As stated in the foreword to the original English edition of the New World Translation: “We offer no paraphrase of the Scriptures. Our endeavor all through has been to give as literal a translation as possible, where the modern English idiom allows and where a literal rendition does not for any clumsiness hide the thought.” Thus, the New World Bible Translation Committee has endeavored to strike a balance between using words and phrasing that mirror the original and, at the same time, avoiding wording that reads awkwardly or hides the intended thought. As a result, the Bible can be read with ease and the reader can have full confidence that its inspired message has been transmitted faithfully.—1 Thessalonians 2:13.

A reliable translation must:

• • Sanctify God’s name by restoring it to its rightful place in the Scriptures.—Matthew 6:9.

• • Accurately convey the original message that was inspired by God.—2 Timothy 3:16.

• • Translate expressions literally when the wording and structure of the target language allow for such renderings of the original-language text.

• • Communicate the correct sense of a word or a phrase when a literal rendering would distort or obscure the meaning.

• • Use natural, easy-to-understand language that encou rages reading.—Nehemiah 8:8, 12.

  A2

  
  

Features of This Revision

The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures was released in English in 1950, and the complete New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures was published in 1961. Since then, tens of millions of readers in well over 100 languages have benefited from this accurate yet readable rendering of the Holy Scriptures from the original languages.

Over the past half century, however, languages have changed. The current New World Bible Translation Committee recognized the need to respond to those changes in order to touch the heart of today’s reader. For this reason, a number of style and vocabulary changes have been made in this revision, with the following objectives in mind:

• • Use of modern, understandable language. For example, the expression “long-suffering” can be misunderstood to mean “someone who suffers for a long time.” However, the intended idea is that of deliberate restrai nt, which is better expressed by the term “patience.” (Galatians 5:22) The now obsolete meaning of “dumb” was replaced with “speechless.” (Matthew 9:32, 33) The term “harlot” was changed to “prostitute.” (Genesis 38:15) In this revision, “fornication” is usually rendered as “sexual immorality”; “loose conduct” as “brazen conduct”; and “revelries” as “wild parties.” (Galatians 5:19-21) The expression “time indefinite” was replaced with such terms as “forever,” “lasting,” “everlasting,” or “long ago,” to convey the intended meaning in each context.—Genesis 3:22; Exodus 31: 16; Psalm 90:2; Ecclesiastes 1:4; Micah 5:2.

The term “seed” in ancient Hebrew and Greek could refer to plant seed as well as to human offspring, or descendants, or to semen. Because it is no longer common in English to use the term “seed” when referring to humans, it was replaced with expressions that convey the intended idea according to the context. (Genesis 1:11; 22:17; 48:4; Matthew 22:24; John 8:37) In most cases, the term “offspring” is now used when referring to the Edenic promise, found at Genesis 3:15.

The English verb “impale” was used in previous versions of this Bible in connection with the execution of Jesus. While this term could refer to the way that Jesus was nailed to the torture stake, it is more often used in reference to the ancient method of execution by running a sharp stake through the body and fixing the victim on it. Since Jesus was not impaled with the torture stake, this revision uses such expressions as “executed on a stake” and “nailed to the stake” with regard to the manner in which Jesus was fastened to the torture stake.—Matthew 20:19; 27:31, 35.

• • Biblical expressions clarified. Some terms used in previous editions of the English New World Translation often needed to be explained in order to be properly understood. For example, the Hebrew term “Sheol” and the Greek term “Hades” are used in the Bible to refer to the common grave of mankind. Those terms are unknown to many, and “Hades” has a dual meaning as a resu lt of its usage in Greek mythology. Therefore, both terms were replaced with what was meant by the Bible writers, “the Grave.” The terms “Sheol” and “Hades” are now given in footnotes.—Psalm 16:10; Acts 2:27.

In past editions, the Hebrew word ne'phesh and the Greek word psyche' were consistently rendered “soul.” In view of the many misconceptions regarding the meaning of the word “soul,” this approach helped the reader to see how the inspired Bible writers used these original-language terms. Depending on the context, those words may refer (1) to a person, (2) to the life of a person, (3) to living creatures, (4) to the desires and appetite ofa person or, in some cases, (5) even to dead individuals. However, since such use of the word “soul” is not common in English, the decision was made to render these original-language words according to their intended meaning, usually with a footnote that reads “Or ‘soul.’” (See, for example, Genesis 1:20; 2:7; Leviticus 19:28; Psalm 3:2; Proverbs 16:26; Matthew 6:25.) However, in some poetic or well-known contexts, the word “soul” was retained in the main text, along with a footnote referring to the Glossary or showing another possible rendering.—Deuterono-my 6:5; Psalm 131:2; Proverbs 2:10; Matthew 22:37.

Similarly, the word “kidney” was retained when it refers to the literal organ. However, when it is used figuratively in such verses as Psalm 7:9 and 26:2 and Revelation 2:23, the intended idea of “deepest emotions” or “innermost thoughts” is conveyed in the main text, and the literal idea is given in a footnote.

Like its Hebrew and Greek equivalents, the English expression “heart” has both a literal and a figurative meaning, so it was usually retained in the main text. However, in a few contexts where the sense was not clear, a more explicit rendering was used. For example, in the book of Proverbs, “in want of heart” now reads “lacking good sense,” and the literal idea is given in a footnote. Other expressions, for instance, “fat,” “flesh,” and “horn,” were handled similarly, according to the context. (Genesis 45:18; Ecclesiastes 5:6; Job 16: 15) Some of these expressions are discussed in the “Glossary of Bible Terms.”

• • Enhanced readability. In previous editions of the English New World Translation, auxiliary expressions were used to indicate whether the Hebrew verb is in the imperfect or the perfect state. For example, the continuous action often expressed by imperfect verbs was indicated by means of the expressions “proceeded to,” “went on to,” “came to be,” and so forth. The emphasis often conveyed by the Hebrew perfect verb was denoted by the added expressions “certainly,” “must,” “actually,” and similar ones. As a result, these terms were used thousands of times in the text. In this revision, auxiliary terms were retained in certain contexts by using such expressions as “kept,” “keep on,” and “used to” when there was a valid reason to express continuous action. (Genesis 3:9; 34:1; Proverbs 2:4) However, they were omitted to enhance readability when the auxiliary expressions were not critical for conveying the original meaning.

• • Conveying the correct idea of words involving gender. Hebrew and Greek nouns indicate male or female gender, and in Greek, also neuter. At times, though, reflecting the gender of the original-language term may obscure the intended meaning. In both Hebrew and Greek, plural nouns are generally masculine, not only when referring exclusively to males but also when referring to both males and females. For example, though the expression “the sons of Israel” may refer to the 12 sons of Jacob, it more often refers to the entire nation of Israel, both men and women. (Genesis 46:5; Exodus 35:29) So in the revision, this phrase was often rendered “Israelites” to show that it refers to the entire nation. Similarly, the expression “fatherless boy” was rendered “fatherless child” or “orphan” to show that it may refer to a boy or a girl. On the other hand, since the Bible uses the male gender in reference to God and to his Son, as well as to various angels and demons, there is no basis for usi ng genderless terms as is done in some modern translations.

• • Omission of indicators for second person plural. Past editions also indicated whether the pronouns “you” and “you r” and second person verbs were singular or plural by using small capital letters to show plurality. This feature was not retained in this revision, but readers may consult earlier editions of this translation for this information.

All adjustments in the Bible text were made prayerfully, carefully, and with deep respect for the fine work of the original New World Bible Translation Committee.

Other features of this revision:

This Bible edition contains a limited number of footnotes. The footnotes general ly fall into the following categories:

“Or”             Alternative ways the text could be rendered from

Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek that would give the same overall idea.—Genesis 1:2, footnote on “active force”; Joshua 1:8, “undertone.”

“Or possibly” Alternative ways the text could be rendered that would convey a valid yet different overall idea.

—Genesis 21:6, “laugh with me”; Zechariah 14:21, “Canaanite.”

“Lit.”             A word-for-word translation from the Hebrew,

Aramaic, or Greek or the basic meaning of an original-language expression.—Genesis 30:22, “pregnant”; Exodus 32:9, “obsti nate.”

Meaning of names (Genesis 3:17, “Adam”; Exodus background 15:23, “Marah”); details about weights and measurements (Genesis 6: 15, “cubits”); the antecedent of

a pronoun (Genesis 38:5, “He”); helpful information in the Appendix and the Glossary.—Genesis 37:35, “Grave”; Matthew 5:22, “Gehenna.”

The front section, entitled “An Introduction to God’s Word,” contains an outline of basic teachi ngs found in the Bible. Immediately following the Bible text is the “Table of the Books of the Bible,” the “Bible Words Index,” and the “Glossary of Bible Terms.” The Glossary helps the reader understand selected expressions according to their Bible-specific usage. Appendix A contains the following sections: “Principles of Bible Translation,” “Featu res of This Revision,” “How the Bible Came to Us,” “The Divine Name in the Hebrew Scriptures,” “The Divine Name in the Christian Greek Scriptures,” “Chart: Prophets and Kings of Judah and of Israel,” and “Main Events of Jesus’ Earthly Life.” Appendix B contains maps, charts, and other information useful to diligent Bible students.

In the main text of the Bible, each book features an outline of its chapter contents, along with the related verses, giving the reader an overview of the entire book. The center column of each page contains the most relevant marginal references from previous editions, pointing to related Bible verses.

The Author and Originator of the Bible is also its Preserver. He is the One who caused this statement to be recorded:

“The word of our God endures forever.”

— Isaiah 40:8.

That statement is true, even though no original Bible manuscript of the Hebrew and Aramaic Scriptures^{1 2} or of the Christian Greek Scriptures has survived to our day. Therefore, how can we be so certain that the contents of the Bible we have today truly reflect the original inspired writings?

COPYISTS PRESERVE GOD’S WORD

Regarding the Hebrew Scriptures, part of the answer lies in an ancient tradition that was established by God, who said that the text should be copied.² For example, Jehovah instructed the kings of Israel to make their own copies of the written Law. (Deuteronomy 17:18) Additionally, God made the Levites responsible for preserving the Law and teaching it to the people. (Deuteronomy 31:26; Nehemiah 8:7) After the exile of the Jews to Babylon, a class of copyists, or scribes (Sopherim), developed. (Ezra 7:6, footnotes) Over time, those scribes made numerous copies of the 39 books of the Hebrew Scriptures.

Through the centuries, scribes meticulously copied these books. During the Middle Ages, a group of Jewish scribes known as the Masoretes carried on that tradition. The oldest complete Masoretic manuscript is the Leningrad Codex, which dates from 1008/1009 C.E. However, in the middle of the 20th century, some 220 Biblical manuscripts or fragments were discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Those Biblical manuscripts were more than a thousand years older than the Leningrad Codex. A comparison of the Dead Sea Scrolls with the Leningrad Codex confirms a vita l point: While the Dead Sea Scrolls conta i n some variations in wording, none of those variations affect the message itself.

What about the 27 books of the Christian Greek Scriptures? Those books were first penned by some of the apostles of Jesus Christ and by a few other early disciples. Following the tradition of the Jewish scribes, early Christians made copies of those books. (Colossians 4:16) Despite attempts by Roman Emperor Diocletian and others to destroy all early Christian literature, thousands of ancient fragments and manuscripts have been preserved until our day.

Christian writings were also translated into other languages. Early translations of the Bible include those in such ancient languages as Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopic,

Georgian, Latin, and Syriac.                   ----------------

ESTABLISHING THE HEBREW AND GREEK TEXTS FOR TRANSLATION

Not all copies of ancient Bible manuscripts contain identical wording. How, then, can we know what the original text contained? The situation could be likened to that of a teacher who asks 100 students to copy a chapter of a book. Even if the original chapter was later lost, a comparison of the 100 copies would still reveal the original text. While each student might make some errors, it is highly unlikely that all the students would make exactly the same ones. Similarly, when scholars compare the thousands of fragments and copies of ancient Bible books available to them, they can detect copyist error and determine the original wording.

How confident can we be that the thoughts contained inthe original Bible texts have been accurately transmitted to us? Commenting on the text of the Hebrew Scriptures, scholar William H. Green stated: “It may be safely said that no other work of antiquity has been so accurately transmitted.” Regarding the Christian Greek Scriptures, or so-called New Testament, Bible scholar F. F. Bruce wrote: “The evidence for our New Testament writings is ever so much greater than the evidence for many writings of classical authors, the authenticity of which no one dreams of

Chapter 40 of Isaiah’s book in the Dead Sea Scrolls (dated from 125 to 100 B.C.E.)

When compared with Hebrew manuscripts from about a thousand years later, only minor differences were found, mostly in spelling questioning.” He also said: “If the New Testament were a collection of secular writings, their authenticity would generally be regarded as beyond all doubt.”

Hebrew Text: The New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (1953 -1960) was based on Biblia Hebraica, by Rudolf Kittel. Since that time, updated editions of the Hebrew text, namely, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta, have included recent research based on the Dead Sea Scrolls and other ancient manuscripts. These scholarly works reproduce the Leningrad Codex in the main text along with footnotes that conta in comparative wording from other sources, including the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Greek Septuagint, the Aramaic Targums, the Latin Vulgate, and the Syriac Peshitta. Both Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta were consulted when preparing the present revision of the New World Translation.

Greek Text: In the late 19th century, scholars B. F. Westcott and F.J.A. Hort compared existing Bible manuscripts and fragments as they prepared the Greek master text that they felt most closely reflected the original writings. In the mid-20th century, the New World Bible Translation Committee used that master text as the basis for its translation. Other early papyri, thought to date back to the second and third centu ries C.E., were also used. Since then, more papyri have become available. In addition, master texts such as those by Nestle and Aland and by the United Bible Societies reflect recent scholarly studies. Some of the findings of this research were incorporated into this present revision.

Based on those master texts, it is evident that some verses of the Christian Greek Scriptures found in older translations, such as the King James Version, were actual ly additions made by later copyists and were never part of the inspired Scriptures. However, because the verse division general ly accepted in Bible translations was already established in the 16th century, the omission of these verses now creates gaps in the verse numbering in most Bibles. The verses are Matthew 17:21; 18:11; 23:14; Mark 7: 16; 9: 44, 46; 11:26; 15:28; Luke 17:36; 23:17; John 5:4; Acts 8:37; 15: 34; 24:7; 28:29; and Romans 16:24. In this revised ed ition, those omitted verses are indicated by a footnote at the location of the omission.

Regarding the long conclusion for Mark 16 (verses 9-20), the short conclusion for Mark 16, and the wording found at

John 7:53-8:11, it is evident that none of these verses were included in the original manuscripts. Therefore, those spurious texts have not been included in this revision.*

Some other wording has been adjusted to incorporate what scholars generally accept as the most authentic reflection of the original writings. For instance, according to some manuscripts, Matthew 7:13 reads: “Go in through the narrow gate because broad is the gate and spacious is the road leading off into destruction.” In previous editions of the New World Translation, “is the gate” was not included in the text. However, further study of the manuscript evidence led to the conclusion that “is the gate” was in the original text. So it was included in this present edition. There are a number of similar refinements. However, these adjustments are minor, and none of them change the basic message of God’s Word.

* Further details on why these verses are viewed as spurious can be found in the footnotes of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures—With References, published in 1984.

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The Divine Name in the Hebrew Scriptures

The divine name, represented by the four Hebrew consonants YHWH, appears nearly 7,000 times in the Hebrew Scriptures. This translation renders those four letters, known as the Tetragram-maton, “Jehovah.” That name is by far the most frequently occurring name in the Bible. While the inspired writers refer to God by many titles and descriptive terms, such as “Almighty,” “Most High,” and “Lord,” the Tetragrammaton is the only personal name they use to identify God.

Jehovah God himself directed Bible writers to use his name. For example, he inspired the prophet Joel to write: “Everyone who calls on the name of Jehovah will be saved.” (Joel 2:32) And God caused one psalmist to write: “May people know that you, whose name is Jehovah, you alone are the Most High overall the earth.” (Psalm 83: 18) In fact, the divine name appears some 700 times in the book of Psalms alone—a book of poetic writings that were to be sung and recited by God’s people. Why, then, is God’s name missing from many Bible translations? Why does this translation use the form “Jehovah”? And what does the divine

name, Jehovah, mean?

Why is the name missing from many Bible translations? The reasons vary. Some feel that Almighty God does not need a unique name to identify him. Others appear to have been influenced by the Jewish tradition of avoiding the use of the name, perhaps out of fear of desecrating it. Still others believe that since no one can be sure of the exact pronunciation of God’s name, it is better just to use a title, such as “Lord” or “God.” Such objections, however, lack merit for the following reasons:

• Those who argue that Almighty God does not need a unique name ignore evidence that early copies of his Word, including

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those preserved from before the time of Christ, contain God’s personal name. As noted above, God directed that his name be included in his Word some 7,000 times. Obviously, he wants us to know and use his name.

• • Translators who remove the name out of deference to Jewish tradition fail to recognize a key fact. While some Jewish scri bes refused to pronounce the name, they did not remove it from their copies of the Bible. Ancient scrolls found in Qum-ran, near the Dead Sea, contain the name in many places. Some Bible translators hint that the divine name appeared in the original text by substituting the title “LORD” in capital letters. But the question remains, Why have these translators felt free to substitute or remove God’s name from the Bible when they acknowledge that it is found in the Bible text thousands of times? Who do they believe gave them authority to make such a change? Only they can say.

• • Those who say that the divine name should not be used because it is not known exactly how to pronounce it will nevertheless freely use the name Jesus. However, Jesus’ first-century disciples said his name quite differently from the way most Christians do today. To Jewish Christians, the name Jesus was probably pronounced Ye-shu'a'. And the title “Christ” was Ma^shi'ach, or “Messiah.” Greek-speaking Christians called him I-e-sous' Khrrstos', and Latin-speaking Christians le'sus Chri'stus. Under inspiration, the Greek translation of his name was recorded in the Bible, showing that first-century Christians followed the sensible course of using the form of the name common in their language. Similarly, the New World Bible Translation Comm ittee feels that it is reasonable to use the form “Jehovah,” even though that rendering is not exactly the way the divine name would have been pronounced in ancient Hebrew.

Why does the New World Translation use the form “Jehovah”? In English, the four letters of the Tetragrammaton (HW’) are represented by the consonants YHWH. As was true of all written words in ancient Hebrew, the Tetragrammaton contained no vowels. When ancient Hebrew was in everyday use, readers easily provided the appropriate vowels.

About a thousand years after the Hebrew Scriptures were completed, Jewish scholars developed a system of pronunciation points, or signs, by which to indicate what vowels to use when reading Hebrew. By that time, though, many Jews had the

God’s name at Genesis 15:2 in WilliamTyndale’s translation of the Pentateuch, 1530

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superstitious idea that it was wrong to say God’s personal name out loud, so they used substitute expressions. Thus, it seems that when they copied the Tetragrammaton, they combined the vowels for the substitute expressions with the four consonants representing the divine name. Therefore, the manuscripts with those vowel points do not help in determining how the name was originally pronounced in Hebrew. Some feel that the name was pronounced “Yahweh,” whereas others suggest different possibilities. A Dead Sea Scroll containing a portion of Leviticus in Greek transliterates the divine name Iao. Besides that form, early Greek writers also suggest the pronunciations lae, babe', and baou^e'. However, there is no reason to be dogmatic. We simply do not know how God’s ancient servants pronounced this name in Hebrew. (Genesis 13:4; Exodus 3:15) What we do know is that God used his name repeatedly in communication with his people, that they addressed him by that name, and that they used it freely in speaking with others.—Exodus 6:2; 1 Kings 8:23; Psalm 99:9.

Why, then, does this translation use the form “Jehovah”? Because that form of the divine name has a long history in the English language.

The first rendering of God’s personal name in an English Bible appeared in 1530 in William Tyndale’s translation of the Pentateuch. He used the form “Iehouah.” Over time, the English language changed, and the spelling of the divine name was modernized. For example, in 1612, Henry Ainsworth used the form “Iehovah” throughout his translation of the book of Psalms. Then, in 1639, when that work was revised and printed with the

Pentateuch, the form “Jehovah” was used. In 1901, the translators who produced the American Standard Version of the Bible used the form “Jehovah” where the divine name appeared in the Hebrew text.

Explaining why he used “Jehovah” instead of “Yahweh” in his 1911 work Studies in the Psalms, respected Bible scholar Joseph Bryant Rotherham said that he wanted to employ a “form of the name more familiar (while perfectly acceptable) to the general Bible-reading public.” In 1930 scholar A. F. Kirkpatrick made a similar poi nt regarding the use of the form “Jehovah.” He said: “Modern grammarians argue that it ought to be read Yahveh or Yahaveh; but JEHOVAH seems firmly rooted in the English language, and the really important point is not the exact pronunciation, but the recognition that it is a Proper Name, not merely an appellative title like ‘Lord.’”

What is the meaning of the name Jehovah? In Hebrew, the name Jehovah comes from a verb that means “to become,” and a number of scholars feel that it refleets the causative form of that Hebrew -------------- verb. Thus, the understanding of the New World Bible Translation Committee is that God’s name means “He Causes to Become.” Scholars hold varying views, so we cannot be dogmatic about this meaning. However, this definition well fits Jehovah’s role as the Creator of all things and the Fulfiller of his purpose. He not only caused the physical universe and intelligent beings to exist, but as events unfold, he conti nues to cause his will and purpose to be realized.

Therefore, the meaning of the name Jehovah is not limited to the related verb found at Exodus 3:14, which reads: “I Will Become What I Choose to Become” or, “I Will Prove to Be What I Will Prove to Be.” In the strictest sense, those words do not fully define God’s name. Rather, they reveal an aspect of God’s persona lity, showi ng that he becomes what is needed in each circumstance to fulfill his purpose. So while the name Jehovah may include this idea, it is not limited to what he himself chooses to become. It also includes what he causes to happen with regard to his creation and the accomplishment of his purpose.

The Divine Name in the Christian Greek Scriptures

Bible scholars acknowledge that God’s personal name, as represented by the Tetragrammaton (YHWH), appears almost 7,000 times in the original text of the Hebrew Scriptures. However, many feel that it did not appear in the original text of the Christian Greek Scriptures. For this reason, most modern English Bibles do not use the name Jehovah when translating the so-called New Testament. Even when translating quotations from the Hebrew Scriptures in which the Tetragrammaton appears, most translators use “Lord” rather than God’s personal name.

The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures does not follow this common practice. It uses the name Jehovah a total of 237 times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. In deciding to do this, the translators took into consideration two important factors: (1) The Greek manuscripts we possess today are not the originals. Of the thousands of copies in existence today, most were made at least two centuries after the originals were composed. (2) By that time, those copying the manuscripts either replaced the Tetragrammaton with Ky'ri-os, the Greek word for “Lord,” or they copied from manuscripts where this had already been done.

The New World Bible Translation Committee determined that there is compelling evidence that the Tetragrammaton did appear in the original Greek manuscripts. The decision was based on the following evidence:

• • Copies of the Hebrew Scriptures used in the days of Jesus and his apostles contained the Tetragrammaton throughout the text. In the past, few people disputed that conclusion. Now that copies of the Hebrew Scriptures dating back to the first century have been discovered near Qumran, the point has been proved beyond any doubt.

• • In the days of Jesus and his apostles, the Tetragrammaton also appeared in Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures. For centuries, scholars thought that the Tetragramma-ton was absent from manuscripts of the Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. Then, in the mid-20th century, some very old fragments of the Greek Septu-agint version that existed in Jesus’ day were brought to the attention of scholars. Those fragments contain the personal name of God, written in Hebrew characters. So in Jesus’ day, copies of the Scriptures in Greek did contain the divine name. However, by the fourth century C.E., major manuscripts of the Greek Septuagint, such as the Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, did not contain the divine name in the books from Genesis through Malachi (where it had been in earlier manuscripts). Hence, it is not su rprising that in texts preserved from that time period, the divine name is not found in the so-called New Testament, or Greek Scriptu re portion of the Bible.

• • The Christian Greek Scriptures themselves report that Jesus often referred to God’s name and made it known to oth-

ers. (John 17:6, 11, 12, 26) Jesus plainly stated: “I have come in the name of my Father.” He also stressed that his works were done in his “Father’s name.”—John 5:43; 10:25.

• • Since the Christian Greek Scriptures were an inspired addition to the sacred Hebrew Scriptures, the sudden disappearance of Jehovah’s name from the text would seem inconsistent. About the middle of the first century C.E., the disciple James said to the elders in Jerusalem: “Symeon has related thoroughly how God for the first time turned his attention to the nations to take out of them a people for his name.” (Acts 15:14) It would not be logical for James to make such a statement if no one in the first century knew or used God’s name.

• • The divine name appears in its abbreviated form in the Christian Greek Scriptures. At Revelation 19:1, 3, 4, 6, the divine name is embedded in the word “Hallelujah.” This comes from a Hebrew expression that literally means “Praise Jah.” “Jah” is a contraction of the name Jehovah. Many names used in the Christian Greek Scriptures were derived from the divine name. In fact, reference works explain that Jesus’ own name means “Jehovah Is Salvation.”

• • Early Jewish writings indicate that Jewish Christians used the divine name in their writings. The Tosefta, a written collection of oral laws that was completed by about 300 C.E., says with

  

  B.C.E.

  
  

300             400             500             1900 1950 2000

■H   ■■   ■■   ■■

Ancient Hebrew text with the divine name appearing twice

The Greek Septuagint translation with the divine name in Hebrew characters

Divine name removed and replaced by KC and KY, abbreviated forms of the Greek word Ky'rbos (Lord)

regard to Christian writings that were burned on the Sabbath: “The books of the Evangelists and the books of the minim [thought to be Jewish Christians] they do not save from a fire. But they are allowed to burn where they are, they and the references to the Divine Name which are in them.” This same source quotes Rabbi Yose the Galilean, who lived at the beginning of the second century C.E., as saying that on other days of the week, “one cuts out the references to the Divine Name which are in them [understood to refer to the Christian writings] and stores them away, and the rest burns.”

• Some Bible scholars acknowledge that it seems likely that the divine name appeared in Hebrew Scripture quotations fou nd in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Under the heading “Tetragrammaton in the New Testament,” The Anchor Bible Dictionary states: “There is some evidence that the Tetragram-maton, the Divine Name, Yahweh, appeared in some or all of the O[ld] T[estament] quotations in the N[ew] T[estament] when the NT documents were first penned.” Scholar George Howard says: “Since the Tetragram was still written in the copies of the Greek Bible [the Septuagint] which made up the

Scriptures of the early church, it is reasonable to believe that the N[ew] T[estament] writers, when quoting from Scripture, preserved the Tetragram within the biblical text.”

• Recognized Bible translators have used God’s name in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Some of these translators did so long before the New World Translation was produced. These translators and their works include: A Literal Translation of the New Testament . . . From the Text of the Vatican Manuscript, by Herman Heinfetter (1863); The Emphatic Diaglott, by Benjamin Wilson (1864); The Epistles of Paul in Modern

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God’s name at Acts 2:34 in The Emphatic Diaglott, by Benjamin Wilson (1864)

English, by George Barker Stevens (1898); St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, by W. G. Rutherford (1900); The New Testament Letters, by J.W.C. Wand, Bishop of London (1946). In addition, in a Spanish translation in the early 20th century, translator Pablo Besson used “Jehova” at Luke 2:15 and Jude 14, and nearly 100 footnotes in his translation suggest the divine name as a likely rendering. Long before those translations, Hebrew versions of the Christian Greek Scriptures from the 16th century onward used the Tetragrammaton in many passages. In the German language alone, at least 11 versions use “Jehovah” (or the transliteration of the Hebrew “Yahweh”) in the Christian Greek Scriptures, while four translators add the name in parentheses after “Lord.” More than 70 German translations use the divine name in footnotes or commentaries.

• Bible translations in over one hundred different languages contain the divine name in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Many African, Native American, Asian, European, and Pacificisland languages use the divine name liberally. (See the list on pages 1742 and 1743.) The translators of these editions decided to use the divine name for reasons similar to those stated above. Some of these translations of the Christian Greek Scriptures have appeared recently, such as the Rotu-man Bible (1999), which uses “Jihova” 51 times in 48 verses, and the Batak (Toba) version (1989) from Indonesia, which uses “Jahowa” 110 times.

Without a doubt, there is a clear basis for restoring the divine name, Jehovah, in the Christian Greek Scriptures. That is exactly what the translators of the New World Translation have done. They have a deep respect for the divine name and a healthy fear of removing anything that appeared in the original text.—Reve-lation 22:18, 19.

God’s name at Mark 12:29, 30 in a Hawaiian-language translation

Languages and Dialects Containing the Divine Name in the Main Text of the Christian Greek Scriptures

Language or Dialect: Divine Name

Aneityum: Ihova

Arawak: Jehovah

Awabakal: YehOa

Bangi: Yawe

Batak (Toba): Jahowa

Benga: Jehova

Bolia: Yawe

Bube: Yehovah

Bullom So: Jehovah

Chacobo: Jahue

Cherokee: Yihowa

Chin (Hakha): Zahova

Chippewa: Jehovah

Choctaw: Chihowa

Chuukese: Jiowa

Croatian: Jehova

Dakota: Jehowa

Dobu: leoba

Douala: Yehowa

Dutch: Jehovah

Efate (North): Yehova

Efik: Jehovah

English: Jehovah

Ewe: Yehowa

Fang:Jehova

Fijian: Jiova

French: IHVH, yhwh

Ga: Iehowa

German: Jehovah; Jehova

Gibario (dialect of Kerewo): Iehova

Grebo: Jehova

Hawaiian: Iehova

Hebrew: mn’

Hindustani: Yihovah

Hiri Motu: Iehova

Ho-Chunk (Winnebago): Jehowa

Ila: Yaave

Iliku (dialect of Lusengo): Yawe

Indonesian: YAHWEH

Kala Lagaw Ya: Iehovan

Kalanga: Yehova; Yahwe

Kalenjin: Jehovah

Kerewo: Iehova

Kiluba: Yehova

Kipsigis: Jehoba

Kiribati: Iehova

Kisonge: Yehowa

Korean: 0B—

Kosraean: Jeova

Kuanua: Ieova

Laotian: Yehowa

Lele: Jehova

Lewo: Yehova

Lingala: Yawe

Logo: Yehova

Lomongo: Yawe; Yova

Lonwolwol: Jehovah

Lugbara: Yehova

Luimbi: Yehova

Luna: Yeoba

Lunda: Yehova

Luo: Yawe

Luvale: Yehova

Malagasy: Jehovah; Iehovah

Malo: Iova

Marquesan: Iehova

Marshallese: Jeova

Maskelynes: Iova

Mentawai: Jehoba

Meriam: lehoua

Misima-Paneati: lehova

Mizo: Jehovan; Jihova’n

Mohawk: Yehovah

Mortlockese: Jioua

Motu: lehova

Mpongwe (dialect of Myene): Jehova

Muskogee: Cehofv

Myene: Yeova

Naga, Angami: Jihova

Naga, Konyak: Jihova

Naga, Lotha: Jihova

Naga, Mao: Jihova

Naga, Northern Rengma: Jihova

Naga, Sangtam: Jihova

Nandi: Jehova

Narrinyeri: Jehovah

Nauruan: Jehova

Navajo: Jiho’vah

Ndau: Jehova

Nembe: Jehovah

Nengone (or, Mare): lehova

Ngando: Yawe

Ntomba: Yawe

Nukuoro: Jehova

Polish: Jehowa

Portuguese: lahve

Rarotongan: Jehova; lehova

Rerep: lova

Rotuman: Jihova

Sakao: lhova; lehova

Samoan: leova

Seneca: Ya’wen

Sengele: Yawe Sesotho: Yehofa

Sie: lehova

Spanish: Jehova; Yahve; YHWH;

Yahweh

Sranantongo: Jehova

Sukuma: Yahuwa; Jakwe Tahitian: lehova

Teke-Eboo: Yawe

Temne: Yehofa; Yehofa

Thai: Yahowa

Toaripi: Jehova; lehova

Tonga: Jehova

Tongan: Jihova; Sihova Tshiluba: Yehowa

Tswana: Jehofa; Yehova; Yehofa Umbundu: Yehova

Uripiv: lova

Wampanoag: Jehovah

Welsh: lehofah

Xhosa: Yehova

Zande: Yekova

Zulu: Jehova; YAHWE

(In addition to those on this list, a number of languages and dialects use a form of the divine name in footnotes or in explanatory text.)

Over 120 languages

Kings of Northern Ten-Tribe Kingdom of Israel

997

Jeroboam: 22 years

| c. 976    /Nadab: 2 years

I c. 975

Baasha: 24 years

/Elah: 2 years

!• <^Zimri: 7 days (c. 951)

I c. 947 Omri and Tibni: 4 years c. 940 Omri (alone): 8 years

Ahab: 22 years c. 920__________________________________________

_{c 917}---- Ahaziah: 2 years

Jehoram: 12 years

I c. 905

Jehu: 28 years

Jehoahaz: 14 years

।^c'⁸⁶²----/Jehoahaz and Jehoash: 3 years

c. 859

Jehoash (alone): 16 years

I c. 844

Jeroboam II: 41 years

Uzziah (Azariah): 52 years

Manasseh: 55 years

Amon: 2 years

659

Josiah: 31 years

Jehoahaz: 3 months            \

Jehoiakim: 11 years

618

Jehoiachin: 3 months, 10 days /

Zedekiah: 11 years/

Jerusalem and its temple are destroyed by the invading Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. Zedekiah, the last earthly king in the Davidic line, is dethroned

Goes to where John was baptizing; many put faith in Jesus

Teaches in citiesand villages, traveling toward Jerusalem

Urges to enter narrow door; laments over Jerusalem

Illustrations: lost sheep, lost coin, lost son

Illustrations: unrighteous steward, rich man and Lazarus

Teaches on stumbling, forgiveness, and faith

Laza rus dies and is resurrected

Jerusalem; Ephraim Plot to kill Jesus; he leaves

Heals ten lepers; tells how God’s Kingdom will come

Illustrations: persistent widow, Pharisee and taxcollector

Teaches on marriage and divorce 19: 1-12

Rich man’squestion;               19:16-

illustration of vineyard workers      20:16

and equal pay

Foretells his death a third time

Request for James’ and John’s position in the Kingdom

Passing through, heals two blind men; visits Zacchaeus; ten minas illustration

Jesus’ Final Ministry in Jerusalem

TIME	PLACE	EVENT	MATTHEW	MARK	LUKE	JOHN	Mt. Hermon A - ... c eSea oft.' ■'■^jGalilee^ Mount of Olives Jerusalem           \ ><><°’T'> -1 Bet    B^^^ny        It                 Bethany Kidron-—L*         • Valley JUDEA       Jericho. Emmauso Jerusalem^ethphage Bethany Salt Sea if1
33, Nisan 8	Bethany	Jesus arrives six days before Passover				11:55 12:1
Nisan 9	Bethany	Mary pours oil on his head and feet	26:6-13	14:3-9		12:2-11
	Bethany-Bethphage-Jerusalem	Enters Jerusalem triumphantly, riding on a donkey	21:1-11, 14-17	11:1-11	19:29-44	12:12-19
Nisan 10	Bethany-Jerusalem	Curses fig tree; cleanses temple again	21:18, 19; 21:12,13	11:12-17	19:45, 46
	Jerusalem	Chief priests and scribes scheme to destroy Jesus		11:18,19	19:47, 48
		Jehovah speaks; Jesus foretells his death; disbelief of Jews fulfills prophecy of Isaiah				12:20-50
Nisan 11	Bethany-Jerusalem	Withered fig tree lesson	21:19-22	11:20-25
	Jerusalem, temple	His authority challenged; illustration of two sons	21:23-32	11:27-33	20:1-8
		Illustrations: murderous cultivators, marriage feast	21:33 22:14	12:1-12	20:9-19
		Answers questions on God and Caesar, resurrection, greatest commandment	22:15-40	12:13-34	20:20-40
		Asks crowd if Christ is David’s son	22:41-46	12:35-37	20:41-44
		Woes to scribes and Pharisees	23:1-39	12:38-40	20:45-47
		Observes widow’s contribution		12:41-44	21:1-4
	Mount of Olives	Gives sign of future presence	24:1-51	13:1-37	21:5-38
		Illustrations: ten virgins, talents, sheep and goats	25:1-46
Nisan 12	Jerusalem	Jewish leaders plot to kill him	26:1-5	14:1, 2	22:1, 2
		Judas arranges betrayal	26:14-16	14:10,11	22:3-6
Nisan 13 (Thursday afternoon)	Nearand in Jerusalem	Prepares for last Passover	26:17-19	14:12-16	22:7-13
Nisan 14	Jerusalem	Eats Passover with apostles	26:20, 21	14:17,18	22:14-18
		Washes feet of apostles				13:1-20
1760

The Message of the Bible

Jehovah God has the right to rule. His method of ruling is best. His purpose for the earth and for mankind will be fulfilled.

After 4026 B.C.E. “The serpent” questions Jehovah’s right to rule and his way of ruling. Jehovah promises to raise upan “offspring,” or a “seed,” who will eventually crush the serpent, Satan. (Genesis 3: 1-5,15, footnote) However, Jehovah allows time for humans to rule themselves under the serpent’s influence.

1943 B.C.E. Jehovah tells Abraham that the promised “offspring” will be one of his descendants. —Genesis 22:18.

After 1070 B.C.E. Jehovah assures King David and later his son Solomon that the promised “offspring” would come through their family line. —2 Samuel 7:12, 16; 1 Kings 9:3-5; Isaiah 9:6, 7.

29 C.E. Jehovah identifies Jesus as the promised “offspring” who is the Heir to David’s throne. —Galatians 3:16; Luke1:31-33; 3:21, 22.

33 C.E. The serpent, Satan, briefly cripples the promised “offspring” by having Jesus killed. Jehovah raises Jesus to life in heaven and accepts the value of Jesus’ perfect life, thus providing the basis to forgive sins and to give Adam’s descendants everlasting life. —Genesis 3:15; Acts 2:32-36; 1 Corinthians 15: 21, 22.

About 1914 C.E. Jesus hurls the serpent, Satan, to the earth, confining him there for a short time.—Revelation 12:7-9, 12.

Future Jesus imprisons Satan for 1,000 years and then destroys him, symbolically crushing his head. Jehovah’s original purpose for the earth and for mankind is fulfilled, his name is cleared of reproach, and his way of ruling is vindi-cated.—Revelation 20:1-3, 10; 21:3, 4.

Genesis and

the Travels of

the Patriarchs

Haran

Carchemish

PADDAN-ARAM

Joseph dies 1657 B.C.E.

Nineveh

4000 B.C.E.

2000 B.C.E.

B.C.E./C.E.

2000 C.E.

Calah

Ebla

Asshur

Hamath

Mari

Hobah

Sidon

GREAT SEA

Damascus

Tyre

Dan

,Ashteroth-karnaim

ELAM

Shechem

Mt. Moriah

Gaza

CHAL

A

Erech

Ephrath

Gosh

Mamre

Ur

iozrah

Teman

Memphis

Beer-sheba

EGYPT

Negeb

Zoar, Bela

0 mi

100

0 km

100

Salt Sea

Wilderness of Paran

El-paran (Elath)

Wadi of Egypt

Valley of Siddim

Tadmor (Palmyra)

EDOM SEIR

Plain of

Shaveh-kiriathaim

Succoth

Mahanaim

Babel (Babylon)

Kadesh, En-mishpat

Timnah Achzib

Hebron, \Cave of Kiriath-arba Machpelah

I * A I | Salem (Jerusalem)

Bethlehem,

Rehoboth Well

Bethel, Luz Ai

Megiddo Dothan

Shechem

ASSYRIA

/>sJ ^;MOAB Beer-sheba

Succoth

Penuel Gilead

Shur     Beer-lahai

Penuel, Peniel

Wadi of Jabbok

(Sodom Gomorrah Admah Zeboiim

-Aleppo

Bethel Bethlehem Hebron

B2

Tabernacle Features

Ark (Ex 25:10-22; 26:33)

3 Curtain (Ex 26:31-33)

3 Pillar for the Curtain (Ex 26:31, 32)

Holy (Ex 26:33)

Most Holy (Ex 26:33)

fa Screen (Ex 26:36)

Pillar for the Screen (Ex 26:37)

Copper Socket Pedestal (Ex 26:37)

Incense Altar (Ex 30:1-6)

50 Table of Showbread (Ex 25:23-30; 26:35) Ju Lampstand (Ex 25:31-40; 26:35) 521 Tent Cloth of Linen (Ex 26:1-6) 53 Tent Cloth of Goat Hair (Ex 26:7-13) 541 Covering of Ram Skins (Ex 26:14) 5s| Covering of Sealskins (Ex 26:14) 56 Panel Frame (Ex 26:15-18, 29) 57l Silver Socket Pedestal Under Panel Frame (Ex 26:19-21)

58 Bar (Ex 26:26-29)

59» Silver Socket Pedestal (Ex 26:32)

Tiphsah

SYRIA (ARAM)

HAMATH

Hamath

4000 B.C.E.

2000 B.C.E.

B.C.E./C.E.

2000 C.E.

□ David’s Kingdom

□ Solomon’s Kingdom

Imports

Exports

Hazar-enan

Gebal

Sidon

Damascus

Tyre,

Helam

Lo-debar

Rogelim

Salecah

Tob

AMMON

Shiloh

Gilgal

Jerusalem

Medeba

Bethlehem

Gaza

,Aroer

Geba

Gezer

MOAB

Mizpeh

Ekron

Negeb

Gath

Bethlehem

Tamar

Tekoa

EDOM

Giloh

Keilah

0 mi

20

Eshtemoa

Maon

Wilderness of Paran

To Syria, Hittites: Horses, Chariots

Tadmor, (Palmyra)

From Egypt: Horses, Chariots

To Tyre: Barley, Wheat, Wine, Olive Oil

From Tyre:

Cedars, Junipers, Gold

From Ophir:

Gold, Gems, Timber

Rabbah Heshbon

Copper Punon

0 km 20

From Tarshish:

Gold, Silver, Ivory, Apes, Peacocks

Abel Land of Cabul?

Hazor

•Gezer

° Ekron o Gath

Hebron.

Kingdom of David and Solomon

M Mahanaii Gilead

David’s reign 1077-1038 B.C.E. Solomon’s reign 1037-998 B.C.E.

Davidic covenant c. 1070 B.C.E.

Jabesh-gilead?

Succoth

Joppa_# Zeredah Ramah

^Zedad Ziphron

Socoh

Adullam

Jerusalem* Gihon Spring En-rogel Well

L^ower Beth-horon, Upper Beth-horon

Beth-shemesh

Azekah

Ezion-Geber^Eloth,^Elath

Gibeon r                        •

Kiriath-jearim^     ^Gibeah_e ^Anathoth

Baal-perazim_o^Nobo*Bahurim

/ Lebo-hamath Copper Berothai

M Mt. Hermon

Dan ’MAACAH, ARAM-MAACAH

Dor.  ^*W^n-(

Megiddo* _A

Mt. Gilboa J Beth-shean

Argob

GESHUR

• Ramoth

Aroer

Valley of Salt?

Sirah Cistern^

Hebron

Jeshimon

Ziph

Horesh_Q Carmel

From Arabia:

Gold, Silver

En-gedi

Jattir*   Bethel

B7

Temple Built by Solomon

ft Most Holy (1Ki6:16, 20)

ft Holy (2Ch 5:9)

ft Roof Chambers (1Ch 28:11) ft Side Chambers (1Ki 6:5, 6,10) ft Jachin (1Ki 7:21; 2Ch 3:17) ft Boaz (1Ki 7:21; 2Ch 3:17) ft Porch (1Ki 6:3; 2Ch 3:4)

(Height uncertain)

ft Copper Altar (2Ch 4:1)

ft Platform of Copper (2Ch 6:13)

J0| Inner Courtyard (1Ki 6:36)

Ju Sea of Cast Metal (1Ki 7:23)

J2| Carriages (1Ki 7:27)

Ju Side Entrance (1Ki 6:8)

54 Dining Rooms (1Ch 28:12)

Sidon

Zarephath

Mt. Hermon

4000 B.C.E.

2000 B.C.E.

B.C.E./C.E.

2000 C.E.

Tyre

Ruled by Herod Antipas

Ruled by Philip

Bethsaida

Cities of the Decapolis

Raphana

Cana,

Gergesa

Hippos

Tiberias

Sepphoris

Dion

Nazareth

Abila

Nain

Gadara

Dor

DECAPOL

IS

Caesarea

SAM

Gerasa

Mt. Gerizim

PEREA

Antipatris (Aphek)

Joppa

Arimathea

Jericho,

Qumran

Bethlehem

Herodium

Machaerus

Salt Sea

Hebron

(Dead Sea)

IDUMEA

Masada

ARABIA

Beer-

0 mi

20

0 km

20

Ashdod, Azotus

Birth ofJesus 2 B.C.E.

Death of Jesus 33 C.E.

Lydda (Lod)

Sebaste (Samaria)

Philadelphia (Rabbah)

Caesarea Philippi

Salim

Aenon⁰

Jamnia (Jabneh)

Scythopolis (Beth-shean)

Ascalon (Ashkelon)

Sychar Jacob’s Well

Ptolemais

(Acco)

Ruled by Herod Archelaus, later by Roman Governor Pontius Pilate

Bethphage Bethany

Israel During the Time of Jesus

•Chorazin Capernaum,

Bethany across Jordan?

Magadan Sea of Galilee

JUDEA .^Ephraim

Ramah

Emmaus⁰ Jerusalem

B10

The Final Week of Jesus’ Life on Earth

Jesus dies 33 C.E.

r । I-

2000 B.C.E. B.C.E./C.E.        2000 C.E.

Jerusalem and Surrounding Area

O Temple

Q Garden of Gethsemane (?)

Q Governor’s Palace

0 House of Caiaphas (?)

Palace Used by Herod Anti pas (?)

Q Pool of Bethzatha

0 Pool of Siloam

0 Sanhedrin Hall (?)

0 Golgotha (?)

© Akeldama (?)

John 11:55-12:1

Matthew 26:6-13

Mark 14:3-9

John 12:2-11

• Triumphal entry into Jerusalem • Teaches in the temple O	• Early trip into Jerusalem • Cleanses the temple • Jehovah speaks from heaven	• Teaches in the temple, using illustrations • Condemns Pharisees • Notes widow’s contribution • On Mount of Olives, foretells Jerusalem’s fall and gives sign of future presence
Matthew 21:1-11,14-17	Matthew 21:18,19; 21:12,13	Matthew 21:19-25:46
Mark 11:1-11	Mark 11:12-19	Mark 11:20-13:37
Luke 19:29-44	Luke 19:45-48	Luke 20:1-21:38
John 12:12-19	John 12:20-50

Outpouring of holy spirit Pentecost 33 C.E.

Black Sea

4000 B.C.E.

2000 B.C.E.

B.C.E./C.E.

2000 C.E.

Dyrrachium

Egnatian Way

Beroea

Apollonia

Dramytium

GALATIA

Nicopolis

GREECE

(of Pisidia)

Smyrna

Rhegium

mium

Samo;

Sicily

Lystra

Sea of Adria

PISIDIA

Deri

Patmos

Perga

Syracuse

Cnidus

PAMPHYLIA

Seleucia

Rhodes

Malta

Crete

(of

zria)

IA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

NICIA

Sidon

Damascus

Cyrene

Syrtis

LIBYA

Alexandria

0 mi

150

ARABIA

ETHIOPIA

0 km

150

Cape Salmone

The Spread of Christianity

Phoenix* Cauda—

Fair Havens

Assos, Mitylene

Apollonia Brundisium

Philadelphia

Laodicea

S Starting point of missionary tours o Cities mentioned in Revelation

Paul’s Travels

— c. 47-48 C.E. 1st missionary tour

— c. 49-52 C.E. 2nd missionary tour

— c. 52-56 C.E. 3rd missionary tour

•••• c. 59-61 C.E. 1st imprisonment in Rome

Tyre Ptolemais

Samothrace

MYSIA

Colossae Miletus

,Rome

\ Three Taverns

Marketplace of Appius x.

^ApPidna

Caesarea Antipatris

Joppa*.

Ashdod .

V Corinth Cenchreae

Thyatira

A ASIA

Attalia

U^Ayra

Puteoli     -'ITALY

Cyprus Salamis

Paphos

LYCAONIA

CILICIA

Tarsus®

Neapolis

C\^'^         Philippi

Amphipolis Thessalonica •

B13

0°C      10°C      20°C      30°C

32°F      50°F      68°F      86°F

APR. | MAY | JUNE I JULY I AUG. I SEPT. I OCT. I NOV. I DEC. I JAN. I FEB. I MAR.

NISAN (ABIB)	14 Passover 15-21 Unleavened Bread	Jordan swells from rains,		Barley          7
	16 Offering of firstfruits	melting snow	Illi
IYYAR (ZIV)	14 Late Passover	Dry season begins, mostly clear skies	:b: t 1	““ &
SIVAN	6 Festival of Weeks (Pentecost)	Summer heat, clear air	:b: t X	Wheat,          ■ early figs
TAMMUZ		Heat increases, heavy dews in areas	-ft. 1'	First grapes UP
AB		Heat reaches maximum	:b: t X	Summer . fruits J&B|Q|S||L
ELUL		Heat continues	:b: t X	Dates, grapes, and figs
TISHRI (ETHANIM)	1 Trumpet blast 10 Day of Atonement 15-21 Festival of Booths 22 Solemn assembly	Summer ends, early rains begin	:&<£? t \ III I	Plowing
HESHVAN (BUL)		Light rains		Olives
CHISLEV	25 Festival of Dedication	Rain increases, frost, mountain snows	oo //// ***	Flocks wintered
TEBETH		Maximum cold, rainy, mountain snows	oo //// ***	Vegetation Xj . developing . jjj;
SHEBAT		Cold weather lessens, rain continues	w?	Almond blossoms
ADAR	14,15 Purim	Frequent thunder and hail	'   0 0
VEADAR	Intercalary month added seven times in 19 years

¹

* Referred to simply as the Hebrew Scriptures from here on.

²

One reason the manuscripts needed to be copied was that the originals were written on perishable materials.